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INTRODUCTION 


TO THE 


‘BOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 


WITH ANALYSES AND ILLUSTRATIVE 
LITERATURE. 


BY 


O. S. STEARNS, D.D., 


PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION IN NEWTON 
THEOLOGICAL INSTITUTION. 


SILVER, BURDETT & CO., PUBLISHERS, 
NEw YORK ... BOSTON .. . CHICAGO, 
1892. 

















CoPpyrRIGHT BY 
SILVER, BURDETT, & CO., 





1888. 

ae 
Typocraruy By J. S. Cusinc & Co., Boston 
Presswork By Berwick & Smit, Boston. 

as 

~_ 

. r Aa’ 

he ; . r. s 


Clurg - 7s AO 


Huglish. 5 Ja 0-9 Mc 


PREPAC E. 


OS 


Tue design of this book is to enable the reader to find 
the leading thoughts of each of the books of the Old Testa- 
ment, combine these thoughts chronologically, as far as pos- 
sible, and thus perceive more clearly and comprehensively 
their development. He will see that the Law expands into 
history, history leads to prophecy, and prophecy becomes ac- 
tuality. He will appreciate the saying of Tholuck, ‘“‘ Heathen- 
ism is the night-sky of religion, and the sky is sown with stars: 
Judaism is the moonlight, and Christianity is the sun.” 

The book makes no claim to be any more than a syllabus, 
or compendium, of larger works on the same subject. Intro- 
ductions, like those of Bleek and Harman, and articles on the 
several books of the Old Testament found in cyclopedias, 
cover much more ground and require a severe critical judg- 
ment. They are designed for scholars, and except as mate- 
rial for reference are too full and elaborate for profitable 
instruction in the class-room. At least, such has been my 
experience. This book is published at the request of classes 
who have used the substance of it in another form. The 
best method in using it is to read carefully the introductory 
matter and the analyses of each book of the Old Testament 
in the order indicated, then read still more carefully the book 
itself, verifying the main topic and analysis, and with the whole 


Was 5 G 


4 PREFACE. 


book well in hand write out a much more minute analysis. 
In this way the student will secure a conspectus of each of 
the books, and be able to group them in suggestive. wholes. 
I have been told that such a compendium would be of 
value to ministers generally, as well as to theological students ; 
and as the basis of it is the English Scriptures, it may com- 
mend itself to superintendents and teachers in the Sunday 
School. Perhaps it may be used profitably as a text-book 
in theological seminaries, and even in colleges, in that good 
day coming when the Old Testament becomes a literary and 
an historical study. ‘The literature referred to is intended for 
broader reading on difficult and controverted subjects. Much 
of it can be found in every minister’s library, as well as in 
almost any public library, and if not found there, is easily 
accessible. Critical questions pertaining to the reconstruction 
of the Old Testament are not discussed, but the literature 
referred to will open the way for each one to form an opin- 
ion for himself. Nothing controversial is designed. My sin- 
gle desire is that to every one who may read this book, these 
ancient Scriptures may become more precious and inspiring. - 


O. S. STEARNS: 
NEWTON CENTRE, MAss. 


GON GENTS: 


eRe Ee i NSS bie elo es elie ce 
ERC ANEENTS © Goce. pice) 8 wire 

PLAN OF STUDY . ee i yet ON el als 
GENERAL DIVISIONS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT 


I) PENTATEUCH. 


Pa OeC RSIS Wy lite PB siants’ ol) iene. 60-0 8 
COU Seer sie cele vis ine ee 8 
RV ELICUS Qelite: (ince: a hase’ 
WeeINUMBERS cute ke ie! vetne’ o>) 

Ree JBOTERONOMY a? 0l oP teits 6% of!" 


tx EARLIER PROPHETS. 


WERMORELTAS | nl as) Com carded ert ere al. 
BCE S gee otc ed “eho oh, of iene 
Seat AND 2 SAMUEL o feo re) 


MIR TCANDGZ KINGS iar 10 i560 fe ah. a> sve 


III. LATER PROPHETS. 
A. GREATER PROPHETS. 


PePISALA He ee! she nar oe eens 
2. JEREMIAH 
chy beaa-« 1a ee 


B. LEssER PROPHETS. 


MRELOSUAS RGA orl aS 6 fe eave iesheey ce 
SRO RL ins var Vig hs lis’ os) oe se 
3. AMOS . : 

CTE ADOUATES Oy or oii sO beep gp) wos 


ROMIONAHLM i eua tare! ee 8 (8 1 4)3% | 


PAGE 


conwr w 


Io 
14 
17 
20 
24 


27 
ao 
36 
41 


45 
51 
55 


59 
62 


65 


79 


6 CONTENTS. 

PAGE 
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IV. HAGIOGRAPHA. 


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Jos e s e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 102 


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» NEHEMIAH «.)) cian eile s lieuses te die oo) cee ae 
I. AND 2 CHRONICLES =. «evs sjle/s | ©) #) ealsmeeeee 


2 WARIO Sede alard oe alta Fed Met 


INTRODUCTION 


TO THE 


BOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 


—.0595 00 ———_ 


PLAN OF STUDY. 


THE text of the Hebrew Bible and the translation 
known as the Revised Version will form the basis of it, 
as sufficient for our purposes. Questions as to the lan- 
guages of the text, the history of the text, the integrity 
of the text, the inspiration of the authors of the text, 
and the supernatural character of the events recorded 
in the text, will not be considered. They pertain to 
“General Introductions”’ (Bleek, Keil, Horne, Harman) 
and to Systematic Theology. The canonicity of the 
books of the Old Testament will also be disregarded. 
Our main quest is for the contents of these books, as- 
suming their canonicity and their authenticity. Our 
work is Azstorical rather than exegetical or apologetical. 
Our plan includes nothing more than a succinct outline 
of each of the Books of the Old Testament, giving 
attention to authorship, date, contents, chief critical 
difficulties, and such literature as may aid in the solu- 
tion of the difficulties. We shall follow the order in the 


8 INTRODUCTION. 


Hebrew Bible, as best suited to our plan, because, while 
that order ignores the date of composition and formal 
contents, it harmonizes with an apparent design in the 
unfolding of ruling ideas. The Triple Division — “the 
Law, the Prophets, and the Hagiographa”’ — gives us 
three clearly defined ideas, viz.: “The Law is the foun- 
dation of the whole revelation, the special discipline by 
which a chosen race was trained from a savage wilful- 
ness to the accomplishment of its divine work. The 
Prophets portray the struggles of the same people when 
they come into closer connection with the kingdoms of 
the world, and were led to look for the inward antitypes 
of the outward precepts. The Hagiographa carry the 
divine lesson yet further, and show its working in the 
various phases of individual life, and in relation to 
the great problems of thought and feeling, which pre- 
sent themselves by a necessary law in the later stages 
of civilization.” Wescott, art. ‘Canon,’ Smith’s Bib. 
Dict Vv ol Mk 7p. 2350; 


THE LAW. 


The Law, or Pentateuch, as one historical book, 
begins with the creation of the world and ends with 
the death of Moses. It is divided into five books in 
the Hebrew Mss. and in the oldest translations. The 
division is as old, at least, as the latest redaction of the 
Pentateuch, and probably older. The opinion that the 
division was the work of the Alexandrian translators is 
doubted by Keil and Bleek. In harmony with this 
division it has been termed “The five-fifths of the Law,” 
“The five books of Moses,’ and by one word, the Latin 
transliteration of the Greek 6 wevtdteuxos, “ the five-vol- 


INTRODUCTION. 9 


umed book,’ “the Pentateuch” (Bleek, § 66). The title 
to each book in the Hebrew text is found in the initial 
word or words; in the Sept. by terms indicative of 
the contents or leading thought: as Genesis, generation 
or production, because it starts with the origin of the 
world; Exodus, because it starts with the departure of 
the Hebrews from Egypt; Leviticus, because it con- 
tains the ritual of worship, etc. In the English version, 
the titles are taken from the Vulgate. N.B. The title 
“The Five Books of Moses,’ which would indicate 
authorship, is of late date. It is not found in the 
Hebrew Bibles or Mss., nor in the Sept. or Vulgate. 


To REND AGRE U CET 





1. GENESIS. 
Chapters, 50. 


§ 1. Literary History of the Book.— In the can- 
ons of the Jews and of the Christian Church, Genesis 
occupies its place at the head of the Pentateuch, and is 
reckoned as an unquestioned part of it. In Hebrew 
Mss. it is not reckoned as one of five books, but as one 
part of one book, the connecting waw, except in the 
case of Deuteronomy, binding the five parts into one 
whole. Vote.— For modern criticism severing it into 
parts with various dates and authorship, see my “ Lec- 
tures on Newer Criticism,’ and for literature, ‘The 
Pentateuch; its Origin and Structure,” E. C. Bissell, 
App. Also, “Essays on Pentateuchal Criticism by 
Various Authors.” 


§ 2. Design of the Book.— This has been tersely 
stated by T. J. Conant (Com. Preface) as follows: “The 
object of the book is to reveal to us the origin of the 
material universe ; man’s origin and relation to God the 
Creator, and the equality of all men before him; the 
divinely constituted relation of the sexes; the divine in- 
stitution of the Sabbath ; the origin of moral and physi- 
cal evil; the primeval history of the human race and 
the origin of nations; the selection of one as the deposi- 
tory of the sacred records and of the divine purpose 


GENESIS. II 


and method for man’s redemption; the history of its 
ancestral founders and their relation to its subsequent 
history.” 


§ 3. Apparent Unity of the Book. — Whoever was 
the author or compiler of the book, its unity is very 
marked. Whether we divide it into twelve sections, as 
Murphy, — (1) Creation, Ch. I.-II. 3 a; (2) Man, II. 3 4- 
mes) all, Il: (4) The Race,.TV.3.(5) Line to: Noah; 
V.-VI. 8; (6) The Deluge, VI. 9-VIII.; (7) The Cove- 
edie... (5)) Che Nations, X.—XI-'¢5 (9): Line sto 
Abram, XI. 10-26; (10) Abraham, XI. 27-XXV. 11; 
(11) Isaac, XXV. 12-18 to XXXV. 29; (12) Jacob, 
XXXVI.—-L.,—or conform to the marked divisions of 
the Hebrew Text, where we find ten, as in the Ten 
Words of the Law, —viz.: (1) A History of the Heavens 
and the Earth; (2) of Adam; (3) of Noah; (4) of Noah’s 
sons; (5) of Shem; (6) of Terah; (7) of Ishmael; (8) of 
Isaac; (9) of Esau; (10) of Jacob, —or analyze it still 
more summarily, and divide it into four parts, according 
.to thought, —viz.: (1) Creation and the Fall, Chs. I.- 
III. ; (2) The Fallen Race and its destruction, IV.-IX. ; 
(3) The Race with a new trial, X.—XI.; (4) Initiatory 
steps for the divine selection of a race out of whom 
shall come the Redeemer of all races, — however we 
may divide the book, each portion conforms to a mani- 
fest purpose underlying and controlling the whole. Few 
books in the Bible preserve an integrity of idea so 
intact. Apparent diversions are but tributary streams 
to the main river. 


§ 4. The Most Important Difficulties. — These may 
be classed under the general head of HARMONISTIC. 


I2 PENTATEUCH. 


(z) A harmony between Chs. I.-II. 3 a and the claims 


of modern science. See— 


“Six Days of Creation” 

Bibs SAC CVOLS 138 471A ets 

“ Testimony of the Rocks” . 

‘The Two Records” 2h. 

“Mosaic Six Days and Gentry 2 erik, 
Sac. vols. 13, 14 

*“‘ Narrative of Creation in Genesee a Bib. 
Sac. voli. : 

“Creation; The Biblical Gasmionony in 
the Light of Modern Science” 

“The first eleven Chapters of Gen. at- 
tested by their Contents.” Bib. Sac. 
VOR22 

“History of the Conflict becweent Relmion 
and Science ” 

“The Order of Creation”. 

“Reconciliation of Science thi Retsen® vy 

“Scripture Doctrine of Creation” . 

‘Scripture and Science not at Variance ” 

“The Origin of the World according to 
Rev. and Science” 

“Rev. and Science” : 

“Chain of Life in Geological rine pet 


(0) A harmony between Ch. V. 
chronology. See— 


BibeaodCs VOks 405 thet umee 

Bib. Sac. vol. 15. 

Cyclopedias, under head “ Games 

“The Patriarchal Dynasties from Adam 
to Abraham” 

Bib. Sac. vol. 44 . 


Lewis, Tayler. 
Dana, J. D. 

Miller, Hugh. 
Miller, Hugh. 


Andrews, E. P. 
Means, J. O. 


Guyot, A. 


Translation of Auberlen. 


Draper, J. W. 
Gladstone, W. E., etc. 
Winchell, A. 

Birks, -t--h. 

Pratt}. : Eis 


Dawson, J. W. 
Dawson, J. W. 
Dawson, J. W. 


and any accredited 


Gardiner, F. 
Packard, J. 


Crawford, T. P. 
Schwartz, J. 


(c) A harmony of the apparent discrepancies in the 


history of the flood, Chs. VI.-VIII. 


See — 


GENESIS. 


“History of the Old Covenant” 
Commentaries. 

Cyclopedias, article “ Noah.” 

Bib. Sac. vol. 17 (universality doubtful). 


13 


Kaitizes er. 


(2) A harmony of Ch. XII. 10-20 and Ch. XX. and 


Ch. XXVI. I-11; 
Delitzsch and others. 


(e) A harmony of Ch. XV. 13 and Ex. XII. 4o. 


Coms. 


three stories or one? 


See Com. of 


See 


Other difficulties pertain chiefly to textual criticism, 


or such as are raised by Colenso. 
replies. 


GENERAL LITERATURE. 


“ Origin of Nations” 

“Origin of Nations” . . oh ph Eile armas 

“ History of Ancient Eg SEs 

“ Egypt and Babylon” : 
“Cuneiform Inscriptions of the Ola eset 
“ Emperors of Egypt” : : 
“ Manners and Customs of Egypt” est eaiGony: 
‘“‘ Genesis and its Authorship ” 

“ Hours with the Bible” . i 
* Daily Bible Illustrations.” Edited by artes J. L. 
“The Pharaohs of the Bondage and the Exodus ” 
“ Abraham, Joseph, and Moses in Egypt” . . 


See his works and 


Lenormant, F. 
Rawlinson, G. 
Rawlinson, G. 
Rawlinson, G. 
Schrader, E. 
Brugsch-Bey, H. 
Wilkinson, J. G. 
Quarry, J. 
Geikie, C. 

Kitto, J. 
Robinson, C. S. 
Kellogg, A. H. 


THE MIDDLE BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH. 


These are Exopus, Lrviticus, and NuMBERs, and 
are so named because they hold a unique and quite 
well-defined relation to each other, forming essentially 
one book. Genesis leads to it; Deuteronomy is a sum- 
mary of it. Lange calls Exodus “the prophetic book of 
the theocracy”; Leviticus, “the pvzestly book”; and 
Numbers, “the £zugly book, the book of the army, its 
preparations and marches, and service of the heavenly 
‘King.” As a mnemonic, the division is helpful. See 
his General Intro, vol., Exodus and Leviticus. 





2. EXODUS. 
Chapters, 40. 


§ 1. Scope of Thought.— The title in Hebrew, 
translated, is, “and these are the names,” or briefly, 
“names,” from the first words. The title of the Sept. 
is "EK £od05; of the Vulgate, Exodus. The book of Exo- 
dus continues the story of the sojourn of the Hebrews 
in Egypt, found in Genesis, and carries it on from their 
deliverance from Egyptian servitude to their national 
and theocratic organization. 


§ 2. General Analysis. — It may be divided into two 
main divisions, Hisrory and LEGISLATION: History, 
Chs. -X VIII. ; Legislation, Chs. XIX.-XL. Or, call- 


EXODUS. 15 


ing the whole history, it may be summed up, as by 
Perowne, “into three clearly marked stages. First, we 
see a nation enslaved; next, a nation redeemed ; lastly, 
a nation set apart, and through the blending of its relig- 
ious and political life consecrated to the service of 
cg eee omitn Ss, BibsDict,, art. Exodus.’ 


§ 3. Minuter Analysis.—1. The oppression of the 
Hebrews in Egypt. Ch. I. 

2. Birth, call, commission and beginning of the offi- 
cial work of Moses. Chs. II-VI. 

3. The ten plagues and the ordinance of the Pass- 
over. Chs. VII.-XII. 

4. The escape from Egypt and journey to Sinai. 
Chs. XIII.-XVIILI. 

5. The Moral Law. Chs. XIX.-XX. 

6. The Civil Law. Chs. XXI.-XXIV. 

7. The Ceremonial Law, including the plan and 
building of the Tabernacle (with the episode concerning 
the first breach of the covenant, Chs. XX XII.-X XXIV). 
Chs. XXV.-XL. 


§ 4. Difficulties.— (a) Duration of the sojourn in 
Egypt; ze. the reconciliation of Gen. XV. 13, 14 with 
Exodus XII. 35, 40, 41 and 1 Kings VI. 1 and Gal. III. 
fee oces Old Covenant,” Kurtz, J: H.; vol: 2; “Chro- 
nology,’ Smith’s Bib. Dict., appendix, Bartlett, S. C. 

(5) The exact lineage of Moses. See Coms. 

(c) The exact time of the departure from Egypt. See 
Coms.; O. T. Student, July, 88; Bible Com. 

(zd) A harmony between Chs. XX.and XXXIV. See 
Coms., Lange. 


16 PENTATEUCH. 


(e) What may be termed the Colenso criticism. 

(f) The analogy between the supernatural events and 
the natural facts. See “Egypt and the Five Books of 
Moses,” Hengstenberg, E. W. 

(z) The exact route of the Hebrews from Egypt to 
Canaan. See “From Egypt to Canaan,” Bartlett, S.C. ; 
“Desert of the Exodus,’ Palmer, E. H.; “‘ Kadesh Bar- 

a,” Trumbull, H. C.; “The Store-city and the Route 
of the Exodus,” Naville, Edouard. 


GENERAL LITERATURE. 


‘* Moses, the Lawgiver” . . . Taylor, W. M. 
‘‘ History of the People of Tee Ty ewalds FL: 
‘“Moses,;a Biblical Study.) ..5 0% *. se Oosterzec. a). 
‘‘Ingersoll and Moses” . . Curtiss, S. I. 
‘Harmony of the Egyptian ne Mosate 

Records?) «0% 4» (wi ea «> Saee, Methodist Quarter) nam 
‘‘ Mosaic Dispensation™ . . . . . .~- Bampton Lectures, ’56. 

§ Christian Review, vol. 28; 

«« Signification of the Mosaic Tabernacle ” { Ford, D. B. 
‘* The Representative System in the Con- 

stitution of Moses” . . ¢ i (Bib. Sacivol.ae: 
‘‘Humaneness of the Mosaic Goda! Mi. he Bibs paCinGlatan 
‘* Ruling Ideas in Early Ages, and their 

elon tO.) AP alta oe ees Mozley, J. B. 


«¢ Abraham, Joseph, and Moses in ae = Kelloggs Asaia 
‘* Remarks on the Mistakes of Moses” . Hastings, H. L. 


3. LEVITICUS. 
Chapters, 27, 


§ 1. Preliminary Remarks.— 1. The Hebrew title as 
translated is, “And he called.” The translators of the 
Sept. gave the name Leviticus to the book, because it 
treats of the duties of the priests, the sons of Levi. In 
the Talmud (Bab.) it is called “The Law of the Priests,” 
“Book of the Law of Offerings.’’ Levites, as distin- 
guished from priests, are mentioned but once, and that 
incidentally, Ch. XXV. 32, 33. 

2. The connection between this book and Exodus, on 
one hand, and that of Numbers, on the other, is quite 
close. The close of Exodus gives us the erection of 
the Tabernacle, with its furniture, the cloud which cov- 
ered it, and the Glory of Jehovah with which it was 
filled. Hitherto Jehovah had spoken from Sinai; hence- 
forth he will reveal his will from the Tabernacle. The 
Book of Leviticus is chiefly occupied with the method 
of this revelation. The close of Leviticus gives much 
of the remaining legislation in the neighborhood of 
Sinai, and Numbers opens with the military census and 
matters preparatory to the march of the Hebrews from 
Sinai. 

3. “The whole period between the setting up of the 
Tabernacle (Ex. XL. 17) and the final departure from 
Mount Sinai (Num. X. 11) was but one month and 
twenty days. Much of this was occupied by the events 
recorded in the earlier chapters of Numbers, especially ~ 
the offerings of the princes on twelve days (Num. VII.), 


18 PENTATEUCH. 


which must have almost immediately followed the con- 
secration of the priests and the Tabernacle (Num. VII. 
1 with Lev. VIII. 10, 11), and the celebration of the 
second Passover (IX. I-5), occupying seven days, and 
begun on the fourteenth day of the first month. All 
the events of Leviticus must therefore be included 
within less than the space of one month.” Introd. to 
Leviticus, Lange, Gardner, Frederic. 

4. For the theory of Bertheau and others, that all the 
laws of Moses are fashioned after the pattern of the 
Ten Words, each subject being treated with ten divis- 
ions, see ‘“ Leviticus,” Smith’s Bib. Dict. 

5. Historical episodes characterize this book, as they 
do the other middle books. 


§ 2. Analysis. — The book may be divided into two 
main parts :— 

I. Laws for approach to God. Chs, I.-XVI. 

II. Laws for continued communion with God _ Chas. 
XVIL-XXVII. 

Part I. may be subdivided into laws of sacrifice, Chs. 
I.-VII.; an historical portion, Chs. VIII.-X.; laws 
of purity; and the day of atonement, Chs. XI.—XVI. 

Part II. may be subdivided into laws of holiness on 
the part of the people, Chs. XVIIL.-—XX.; laws of holi- 
ness on the part of the priests and offerings, Chs. X XI. 
—XXII.; and the sanctification of the feasts, Chs. 
XXIHI-XXV., with an historical portion, Ch. XXIV. 
10-23. The concluding chapters (Chs. XXVI. and 
XX VII.) contain promises and threatenings, and rules 
concerning vows, things devoted, and tithes. 


LEVITICUS. I9 





§ 3. Difficulties. — In this book they belong chiefly 
to the dismemberment theories of the Newer Criticism. 
The book finds its key in the Epistle to the Hebrews. 


LITERATURE. 


Dee eee QlOgy ahs) 's (fet +) on \s- Oebler, GF. 
Besonrverming sacrifices,” 2... . + Outram, W. 
ROO soy se Reed ere VLUT DAYG) I 
‘On the oan of Sacrifice” eit ee Waa BP ADeTy Grn ss. 
‘*Inquiry into the Origin and Intent 

of Primitive Sacrifice” . . . . Davison, J. 
Be ews oil vss se +. « ce sDissertation 2, Tholuck,.A. 
oid. Covenant.”... . eer nM Sire ed eae b 
‘*The Typology of Becnaire KOE Fairbairn, P. 
‘¢ The Revelation of Law in Serpture” Me Pairbairmn, P. 
** Pulpit Com.” : 
<*Q. T. Com. for ain Rees Mean Ellicott. C.J. 


4. NUMBERS. 
Chapters, 36. 

§ 1. Title.— This book is so called from the Latin 
translation of the Sept. title (apv@uot = Numeri), because 
it contains a census or muster-roll of the people, in Chs. 
I-IV. and XXVI._ By the later Jews it was named 
- from the first word of the text “And he spake,” as 
indicating historical connection, or by the fifth word 
“Tn the Wilderness,’ because of the location of the 
scenes recorded in it. It gives a history of the Hebrews 
from the second month of the second year from the 
departure from Egypt, to the beginning of the eleventh 
month of the fortieth year of their sojournings, — about 
thirty-eight years and nine months. Num. I. 1, and 
DOOA VL TR ancespetngnl cass 


§ 2. Analysis. — Perowne (Smith’s Bib. Dict., art. 
“Numbers ’’) gives the following as a general analysis. 

“1, The preparation for the departure from Sinai. 
Chs. I.-X. Io. 

“2, The journey from Sinai to the borders of Canaan. 
Chs. X. 11-XIV. 45. 

“3, A brief notice of laws given and events which 
transpired during the thirty-seven years’ wandering in 
the wilderness. Chs. XV.—XIX. 22. 

“4, The history of the last year, from the second arrival 
of the Israelites in Kadesh till they reach ‘the plains of 
Moab by Jordan near Jericho.’ Chs. XX.-XXXVI.” 


NUMBERS. : 21 


This may be subdivided thus : — 


A. (a) The census of the twelve Tribes and their 
arrangement in the army. Chs. I.-II. 

(2) The census of the Levites and the arrangement 
of their services in the Tabernacle. Chs. III.-IV. 

(c) The purification of the camp by the removal of 
unclean persons from it. Ch. V. 

(2) The consecration of the Nazarites. Ch. VI. 

(e) The offerings by the heads of the tribes to the 
Papermacte.: Ch. VII. 

(f) The consecration of the Levites. Ch. VIII. 

(g) The celebration of the Passover. Ch. IX. 1-14. 

(4) Rules for the movements of the army. Chs. IX. 
I5-X. 10. 


B. (a) The departure. Ch. X. 11-35. 

(2) The first murmuring, on account of the length of 
the way: punished by fire at Taberah. Ch. XI. 1-3. 

(c) The second murmuring, for flesh instead of manna: 
punished by a pestilence. Ch. XI. 4-35. 

(2) The third murmuring, of Aaron and Miriam against 
Moses: punished by the leprosy of Miriam. Ch. XII. 

(e) The fourth murmuring, connected with the “evil 
report” of the spies sent to explore Canaan: punished 
by the threatened death of all who were twenty years 
old and upward, except Joshua and Caleb. Chs. XIII.- 
Pen vemeceies: 90.) 


C. (a) Some special laws concerning worship. Ch. 
XV. ) 

(6) The fifth murmuring and rebellion of Korah and 
his company, with their punishment. Ch. XVI. 1-40. 


22 PENTATEUCH. 


(c) The sixth murmuring, that of the people against 
Moses and Aaron for the punishment inflicted on Korah 
and his company, their punishment, and the defence of 
Aaron as to the authority of his priesthood (episode of 
the red heifer. Ch. XIX.). Chs. XVI. 41-XIX. 


D. (a) The seventh murmuring, for water, the unbe- 
lief of Moses, and its result upon him. Ch. XX. 

(5) The eighth murmuring, because of the weariness 
of the way in encompassing Edom: punished by fiery 
serpents. Also events following, with songs from “the 
Book of the Wars of Jehovah,” Ch. XXI. I-20. 

(c) A history of the events which took place in the 
plains of Moab. Ch. XXI. 21I-XXXVI. 


§ 3. Difficulties.— 1. A harmony of Chs. I.-IV. and 
XXVI.. See Introd., Horne, ‘Old Covt,” ourtzypas 
and Coms. 

2. An exact itinerary of the wanderings. See Bart- 
lett, Trumbull, Horne, etc. 

3. The historicity, age, and genuineness of the episode 
concerning Balaam. See “ History of Balaam and his 
Prophecy,” Hengstenberg, E. W.; “ Bible Studies,” 
Kalisch; ‘M.-M.3--Bib>Sac., vol> 3; Robbins) sR Dae. 
O. T..Studenty’$5; Stebbins,’ RiP: 

4. “The Book of the Wars of Jehovah.”” What were 
they? 

LITERATURE. 
Encyc. Brit., art. ‘‘ Numbers,” and other Encycs. 


LITERATURE IN CONFIRMATION OF THE TRUTHFULNESS OF 
THE MIDDLE BOOKs. 
‘‘ Hist. and Sig. of the Tabernacle” . . . Atwater, E. E. 
‘<The Wonderful Tent” © .°'.-“.>'". > 1. SRanGaleaoeee 


NUMBERS. 23 


«Sinai and Palestine” . . eee ap alle year Ls 
‘¢ Biblical Researches in Palectas viet ete a ODIRSONG) Le. 
Beerooeer ne fews 0 G4) 7... - +) ~6|6 Milman; Hi: H. 
eee church. vol,t 2°... .. .. Stanley, A. P. 
Sieecerandineirophets =. 20)... . . ‘Green, W. H. 
‘¢The Land and the Book,” 3 vols.. . . . Thomson, W. M. 
‘¢ Historical Character of the Pent. Vindi- 

Rated eis ss ae ey eee VV orring ton. Geo. 
‘* Authenticity of the Pent.” nT ae Hengstenberg, E. W. 
‘¢The Most Important Difficult Serons a 

the Pent. Explained,” vol. 1. . . . . Hengstenberg, E. W. 
meine ta ule bent. =... 2)... o »  Havernick, Hy A: Ch. 
‘* Records of the Past.” 
‘‘The Pent. : Its Authorship, Credibility, 

and Ee liation® eas serpy sire WW 
** Ancient History abe the Monuments.” 5 vols. 
‘¢ Oriental Records,” 2 vols. 


5. DEUTERONOMY. 
Chapters, 34, 

§ 1. Title and Author.—The later Jews name this 
book from the first two words of the Hebrew text, 
‘These are the Words,’ or shorter, ** Words gee 
some Rabbins it is called “ The Repetition of the 
Law”; by others, “The Book of Reproofs) sjaiite 
Sept., of which the Latin is the transliteration, gives 
our word Deuteronomy, z.c. Second Law, because it 
contains a restatement of many of the laws which 
Moses had previously given to the people. In the 
Hebrew text there is no connecting waw, as is the 
case with the other books of the Pent.; indicating 
that the legislation for the Hebrews was substantially 
closed, and that this book might properly be looked 
at as a vesumé or conclusion of Hebrew history prior 
to the occupation of Canaan. 

Tradition, Jewish and Christian, assigns the author- 
ship of the book to Moses; and the date to the close of 
his life. Many modern conservative critics adhere to 
this opinion; but the Newer Criticism, reasoning from 
peculiarities of style, supposed anachronisms, and dis- 
crepancies, assigns it to an unknown author in the time 
of Josiah, B.c. 621. see Lange, Deut. Introdaaae 
Appendix ; Smith’s Bib, Dict. art. ‘ Deut.” 3) *“Peonles 
Book”; “The Pent.: Its Origin and Structure,” Bissell, 
E. C.; Cyclopedias and Coms. 

Whoever the author, the book is very noticeable for 


DEUTERONOMY. 25 


unity of plan. Summarily, it might be called Moses’ 
Farewell Addresses. 


§ 2. Analysis. —1. First address of Moses, in the 
plains of Moab, shortly before his death, giving a resumé 
of the last forty years in the history of the people, with 
exhortations to fidelity to their sacred calling as a 
nation, and warnings and threatenings in case of dis- 
obedience, Chs. I-IV. 40; (Episode, the selection of 
three cities of refuge on the east of the Jordan, IV. 
41-43). 

2. Second address, including the repetition of the 
Decalogue, the centralization of worship at one altar 
(Ch. XII.), the emancipation of Hebrew slaves, the 
rights of priests and Levites, etc., in substance a repeti- 
tion and commentary upon the moral, ceremonial, and 
civil laws of the Middle books. Chs. IV. 44-X XVI. 

3. Third address, which may be briefly called ‘“ The 
Blessing and the Curse,” with the attending circum- 
stances. Chs. XXVII.-XXX. 

4. Close of the life and activity of Moses, including 
the consecration of Joshua. Chs. XXXI-XXXIV. 


§ 3. Difficulties.— 1. These are chiefly those pre- 
sented by the Newer Criticism. See appendix of ‘The 
Men@emttse@ricin and Structure,” Bissell,’ EK. C:, for 
literature. 

2. A harmony of the laws as found in the Middle 
books and those of Deut. as to occasion and language, 
starting questions concerning Divine inspiration. 

3. The last chapter (XX XIV.) is doubtless the work 
of some other writer than Moses, as it records his 


26 PENTATEUCH. 


death. Critics vary. For centuries it has been a bone 
of contention. Conservatives think it the work of 
Joshua or Eleazar; some that it is the introductory 
chapter to the Book of Joshua. 


Ii EAREIER. PROPHETS. 





1. JOSHUA. 

Chapters, 24, 

In. the Hebrew Bible, Joshua stands at the head of 
a series of books designated the ‘“ Earlier Prophets,” 
including, with Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel,.and 
1 and 2 Kings. They are so called by the Massorites 
partly because Jewish tradition deemed them the work 
of the prophets, and partly because they recount largely 
the deeds of prophets. Each book, however, must be 
tested by itself as to age and authorship. They cover 
the period of Israelitish history, summarily stated as 
follows: (1) The rule of Joshua and the elders who 
succeeded him. (2) The rule of native kings. (3) The 
rule of foreign invaders. 


§ 1. Author. — The Book of Joshua is so named, not 
from its author, but as a history of the exploits of its 
chief hero. It is so closely connected in narrative with 
the close of the Pent. that the later criticism deems it 
a part of one whole, with the title Hexateuch. Tradi- 
tion, Jewish and Christian, assigns its authorship to 
Joshua. By modern critics it is assigned to Eleazar, or 
one of the elders, Samuel, Jeremiah, or some unknown 
writer after the Babylonian captivity. As to the tradi- 
tional view, it is argued in favor of it, — 


28 EARLIER PROPHETS. 


(az) That Joshua was well qualified for such a work, 
would be specially interested in preserving the facts in 
the history of his people, and would naturally record 
them or cause them to be recorded. 

(5) That according to Ch. XXIV. 26, he wrote an 
account of “The Covenant”’ at Shechem, and placed it 
in ‘The Book of the Law.” 

(c) That his special intercourse with Jehovah, and 
with the Captain of Jehovah’s Hosts, implies a record 
by himself or from his lips. 

(72) That the two addresses (Chs. XXIII.-XXIV.) 
seemingly require documents of his own or of his 
dictation. 

(e) That.Ch. VI. 25 implies at least a contemporary 
writer, and so does Ch. V. 1 and 6, if the K‘thibh is the 
correct reading. See Imperial Dict., Fairbairn, art. 
‘Joshua,’ for other arguments on this side. 

“Against this view. (a) That Ch. XXIV. 29-32 is 
evidently by a later hand. 

(4) That Ch. XV. 18-20, cf. Judges I. 10-15, referring 
to the capture of Hebron and Debir, unless it refers 
to one and the same event, implies a later hand. 

(c) That the capture of Laish by the warriors of Dan 
implies a later hand. Cf. Josh. XIX. 47 with Judges 
ANAL Sd: 

(7) That the remark that “the Jebusites dwell with 
the children of Israel at Jerusalem,” implies a later 
hand. Cf. Josh. XV. 68 with Judges I. 8. 

Remark 1.— Keil gives the following passages as 
evidence that the book is to be dated as early as the 
beginning of the reign of Saul. 

Ch. XVI. 10; cf. 1 Kings IX. 16. Canaanites still in 
Gezer. 


JOSHUA. 29 


Ch. XV. 63; cf. 2 Sam. V. 6-9. Expulsion of the 
Jebusites. 

mage 27. Cle 2 Sam. XXIV, 18-217 and, 1 Chron; 
XXI. 18 sq. and XXII. 1 sq., z.e. prior to the temple. 

Site ba cle NX.) 25)and XII. 4-6, as’ to Sidon 
and Tyre before David’s time. 

Remark 2.— Most conservatives deem the book the 
work of Joshua or of one of his contemporaries, with 
sundry additions by a compiler or redactor. 

Keil and Bleek in their Introductions give the sub- 
stance of the late discussions on the subject. Kuenen’s 
‘The Hexateuch” (translation) contains his latest opin- 
ions on the subject. 


§ 2. Design of the Book.— This is, says Keil, “to 
furnish historical evidence that Joshua, by the help of 
God, faithfully performed the work to which the Lord 
had called him, and by the side of that to show how, in 
fulfilling the promises which he gave to the patriarchs, 
God drove out the Canaanites before Israel, and gave 
their land to the twelve tribes of Jacob for a permanent 
Maneritance: ° Com. p. 2. 

Remark.—Yor Joshua as a type of Christ, see “An 
Exposition of the Creed,” Pearson, J., 2 doco. 


§ 3. Contents of the Book. — General Analysis. 
1. The Conquest of Canaan. Chs. I.-XII. 

2. The Division of Canaan. Chs. XIII.-X XI. 
3. The Farewell of Joshua. Chs. XXII.-XXIV. 


Minuter Analysts. 
Under I. A. THE PREPARATION. 


(2) Summons to the War. Ch. I. 
(6) Mission of the Spies to Jericho. Ch. II. 


30 EARLIER PROPHETS. 


B. CROSSING THE JORDAN. 

(2) The Divine guidance and memorial at Gilgal. 
Chs. III.-IV. 

(6) The consecration of Circumcision and instructions 
for the capture of Jericho. Chs. V.-VI. 5. 


C. THe CONQUEST OF SOUTHERN AND CENTRAL 
CANAAN. 

(2) Jericho. Ch. VI. 6-27. 

(6) Ai. Chs. VIL-VIII. 

(c) The battle of Beth-horon and its results. Chs. 
IX.—X. 


D. THE ConouEest OF NORTHERN CANAAN. 
(aj=cChe northern eager NTE 
(2) Review of the conquest. Ch. XII. 


Under II. A. Division or EASTERN CANAAN. 

(2) Distribution of the land to Reuben, Gad, and half- 
tribe of Manasseh. Ch. XIII. 

(2) Continuation of the same, and the assignment of 
the possession of Caleb. Ch. XIV. 


B. DiviIsIon OF WESTERN CANAAN. 

(2) For the tribe of Judah. Ch. XV. 

(0) For the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh. Chs. 
XVI.-XVII. 

(c) For the remaining tribes and the possession of 
Joshua. Chs. XVIII.-XIX. 


C. (a) The selection of the cities of Refuge and of 
the priestly and Levitical cities. Chs. XX.-XXI. 


Under III. A.-THE RELEASE \OF . THE HAGToRE 
TRIBES FROM THE DEMANDS OF THE WAR. 


JOSHUA. a1 


(a) The departure. Ch. XXII. 9. 
(2) Settlement of a bitter controversy. Ch. XXII. 
10-34. 


B. THE FAREWELLS OF JOSHUA AND HIS DEATH. 

(2) First address. Ch. XXIII. 

(2) Second address, and conclusion of the book. Ch. 
XXIV. 


§ 3. Difficulties. — 1. The destruction of the Canaan- 
ites. Moral right. See Introduction to Bible Com., 
Manee- Weil,, Bleek; “Introduction to’ Pent:,” Haver- 
nick; “The Right of the Israelites to Palestine,’ Heng- 
Peper oe tm VV ectures on the Pent.,” Graves, R?; 
“The Typology of Scripture,’ book 3, Fairbairn, P. ; 
“‘ History of the Jewish Church,” vol. 1, Stanley, A. P. ; 
“Ruling Ideas in Early Ages,” Mozley, J. B., Lectures 
4 and It. 

2. Exposition of Josh. X. 9-14. See “Introduction to 
the O. T.,’’ Davidson, S. “History of Israel,” Ewald, 
H.; “An Apology for the Bible,” Watson, R.; Biblical 
Repository, vol. 3.; Bib. Sac. vol. 14. 


LITERATURE. 


For this, which is very full, especially in the geog- 
raphy of Palestine, consult Smith’s Bib. Dict. art. 
‘Palestine,’ and Lange’s Introduction to Joshua. 

Note. — A careful study of Joshua gives the fount for 
the truthful study of the history of the Jews. Mosaism 
is here centralized and set in operation. But for how 
short a time? 


2. JUDGES. 
Chapters, 21. 

Tuts book is so called because its main purpose is to 
record the deeds of some thirteen men, who, as military 
heroes in special emergencies, won for the Israelites 
deliverance from the oppression of the hostile nations 
upon their borders. It covers a period of 300 or more 
years, some say more than 400 years, and includes 
events from the death of Joshua to the priesthood of 
Eli. It is an important link in the history of the 
people, especially as showing the chaotic condition 
into which they fell after their great leader was taken 
from them. How soon the theocratic element essen- 
tially lost its power over them, and to what degree 
the theocratic ceremonialism was preserved through 
these troublous times, it is impossible to say; but as 
the book is chiefly confined to very brief accounts of 
marked restorations, we may perhaps assume that there 
was “a holy seed which is the substance thereof”’ (Is. 
VI. 13), which continued to exist and often produced 
its legitimate fruit. Cassell (Lange) says: “As the 
periods of servitude are characterized as times of apos- 
tasy, while those of independence are represented as 
times of order, it is not unimportant to observe that 
apostasy prevailed during but one-third of the time de- 
scribed.” 


§ 1. Author and Date.— As to authorship we are 
left to conjecture, with little probability of a satis- 





JUDGES. 33 


factory conclusion. The Talmud assigns it to Samuel, 
and Keil accepts this view as so far true that it may be 
the product of one of his disciples written at his request. 
He thinks from Ch. I. 21, that it must have been writ- 
ten before the capture of Jerusalem, and, therefore, 
during the first seven years of the reign of David. 
Many agree with him. If unity of authorship can be 
maintained, this view would have much in its favor. 
Others ascribe it to Phinehas (Judges XX. 28), Heze- 
kiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Ezra. Whoever was the 
author, it is evidently a book of annals, gathered from 
various documents, and compiled with a moral rather 
than with an exact historical purpose. This is evident 
from the two episodes (Chs. X VII.-—X XI.) which belong 
historically to a period soon after the death of Joshua, 
and are the key to the moral condition of the people, of 
which the rest of the book is the fuller development. 
If written in the reign of David, the date would be 
between 1042 and 1023 B.C. 


§ 2. The Chronology of the Book. — This is hope- 
lessly obscure. See, for the conservative view, Keil’s 
Introduction, in loco. For another, Bleek’s ditto. See 
also Bible Com., Preface, and Cassell’s able introduc- 
tion in Lange. Also “The Chronology of the Period 
Gemaeweluacees; - ©, J. Student, Jan, 1884, W. J; 
Beecher. 


§ 3. Contents.— The book is divided into (¢hree 
paris >— | 
1. An Introduction, or rather Introductions, appar- 


ently designed to connect the history with that given 
in the Book of Joshua. Chs, J.-III. 7. 


34 EARLIER PROPHETS. 


(2) Describes the condition of the Israelites immedi- 
ately after the death of Joshua. Chs. I.-II. 1o. 

(2) A more formal introduction connecting closely 
with Part 2, describing the relapse of the people into 
idolatry, and the consequent deliverance into the power 
of their enemies. Chs. II. 11-III. 7. 

2. The history of the Judges. Chs. III. 3-XVI. 

(2) The servitude of the tribes east of the Jordan to 
the king of Mesopotamia, and their release by Othniel. 
Ch. III. 8-11. 

(2) The servitude of the Israelites to the king of 
Moab, and their rescue by Ehud, and their deliverance 
from the Philistines by Shamgar. Ch. III. 12-31. 

(c) The servitude of the northern tribes to Jabin, and 
their deliverance by Deborah and Barak, including the 
song of Deborah. Chs. IV.—V. 

(2) The servitude of the eastern and northern tribes, 
and their rescue by Gideon. Chs. VI.-IX. 

(ec) The judgeships of Tola and Jair, the oppression 
of the Ammonites, the rescue by Jephthah, and the ad- 
ministration of Ibsan, Elon, and Abdon. Chs. X.—XII. 

(7) The servitude of the Israelites to the Philistines, 
and their rescue by Samson. Chs. XIIIL-XVI. 

3. Two Episodes. Chs. XVIIL-XXI. 

(2) The idolatry of Micah and of the tribe of Dan. 
Chs. XVIL-XVIII. 

(6) The crime of Benjamin in defending the infamous 
deed at Gibeah, and the terrible internecine war which 
almost extinguished the tribe. Chs, XX.--XXI. 


§ 4. Difficulties.—1. An adjustment of the two 
introductions. 


JUDGES. 35 


2. An adjustment of the chronology of the book with 
NAS @ 

3. The relation of the event mentioned in Ch. I. 21 
to the date of the book. 

4. A question whether the rule of the Judges was in 
some cases contemporaneous or in all cases consecu- 
tive. The answer relates to the date of the history as 
recorded, 


LITERATURE. 


“The Song of Deborah” . Bib. Sac. vol. 12. 


Robbins. Ras De €; 
pelmewpirit OF Hebrew Poetry”... . .”. Herder, J. G. 
BeeerteAcOlistes yi ts) i. ea 8 SS Milton, John: 
“Jephthah’s Vow” 2... se ee ee See I 
Warren, S. 

eatstory ot the [ews.?..: . ecten ee. Tee Milman ali. H: 
“ History of the Jewish enureh ay Olin) ac erotaniey, ALP, 
SIO ERCMeEECR se oe. Ss) 6s ee) se 4, Lange, 
ta ; . ay Kitto, J., 

Daily Bible Illustrations”... . . . « ; ac he patter STAT 
ieee DIbIeY ys 2s sk ws bse. Geikie, C 


3. 1 AND 2 SAMUEL. 
Chapters: 18am. 31; 2 Sam, 24, 


§ 1. Titles and Division.— The two Books of Sam- 
uel, like the two Books of Kings, were originally an 
undivided whole. (N.B. The Massoritic note at the 
close of the 2d Book in the Hebrew Bible, giving the 
number of verses, treats them as one.) The Sept. deem- 
ing the Book of Samuel and the Book of Kings to be 
a complete history of the kingdom from its foundation 
to its fall, divided the work into four books and called 
them “Books of the Kingdoms” (BiBro0t Bachelor). 
Jerome, in the Vulgate, followed this division, changing 
the title from “ Books of the Kingdoms,” to “ Books of 
the Kings” (Libri Regum). This division was first 
introduced into printed Hebrew Bibles by Bombey, 
printer in Venice, in 1518. 


§ 2. Meaning of the Title.— The title “Samuel” does 
not mark authorship, but like the titles Joshua, Ruth, 
Esther, indicates the leading actor in the events of the 
book. He was the’chief agent in establishing the 
kingdom of Israel, and in guiding the chosen people, in 
the crisis of a transition from the rule of the judges to 
that of a king. The book begins with an account of 
his birth, and closes with the reign of the king whom 
he anointed. It covers a period of about 125 years, 
II140~I1015 B.C. 


LeAND 2) SAMUEL, 37 


§ 3. Author.— Unknown. A late Jewish tradition 
assigns it to Samuel. This could only apply to the first 
twenty-four chapters of the first book, inasmuch as Ch. 
XXV.1 records his death. It is generally admitted that 
the book is a compilation from various sources, but the 
compiler is unknown. 





§ 4. Sources. — (2) Probably contemporary propheti- 
cal histories. The compiler of the Chronicles specially 
names as the original authority for the reign of David, 
“the chronicler, or words of Samuel the seer” (**), 


of ‘ Nathan the prophet ” (S733), and of ‘‘Gad the seer,” 
(FM), 1 Chron. XXIX. 29. Similarly, for the reign 


of Solomon he names ‘ Nathan the prophet,” 2 Chron. 
IX. 29. If this view be correct, then Samuel might be 
the historian of his own lifetime, and Nathan and Gad 
the historians of the portions which cover the reign 
of David. 

(6) “THe CuronicLtes oF Kine Davip” (1 Chron. 
XXVII. 24) may have been consulted, giving the for- 
mal summaries of wars, and lists of officials, 2 Sam. 
VIII. 1-15; VIII. 16-18; XX. 23-26; XXIII. 8-309. 

(c) THe Nationat Poetic LITERATURE WAS EM- 
PLOYED. Song of Hannah, 1 Sam. II. 1-10. David's 
lament for Abner, 2 Sam. III. 33-34. David’s thanks- 
giving, 2 Sam. XXII.; cf. Ps. XVIII. The last words 
of David, 2 Sam. XXIII. 1-7. These were preserved 
in oral or in written form; which, is uncertain. 


§ 5. Date. — (a) The language points to an early date. 
It is pure Hebrew, free from Aramaisms and late forms. 


38 EARLIER PROPHETS. 


Constructions, such as are found in Kings, are not 
found in Samuel. 

(5) Some time after the events recorded, however, 
e.g. the explanation of archaic terms, 1 Sam. IX. 9; 
reference to obsolete customs, eg. 2 Sam. XIII. 18, 
Gen. XXXVII. 3, 23; the frequent formula — “unto 
this day” — e.g. 1 Sam. V. 5, 2 Sam. IV. 3, etc. 

(c) After the death of David, since the whole length 
of his reign is mentioned (2 Sam. V. 5), and according 
to the Sept. there are two allusions to the reign of 
Rehoboam, — 2 Sam. VIII. 7 and 2 Sam. XIV. 27. 
And, if we do not accept these additions, the men- 
tion of the king of Judah (1 Sam. XX VII. 6) seems to 
presuppose the division of the kingdom into northern 
and southern as having already taken place. There is 
nothing which points to a later date, when carefully 
considered, though the critics affirm that there is, even 
to as late as 622 B.C. 

Note.— The canonicity of the book is unquestioned. 
For textual difficulties, see Introductions. The two most 
important manuscripts of the Sept. containing the Book 
of Samuel are the Alexandrian (A) of the fifth century, 
now in the British Museum, and the Vatican (S), as- 
signed to the fourth century, now in the Vatican library 
in Rome. 


§ 6. General Analysis.— There are three main divis- 
lons ; — 

(1) History of Samuel, as the restorer of the theoc- 
racy and founder of the kingdom of Israel. 1 Sam. I- 
VII. 

(2) The history of Saul and his reign until his death. 
1 Sam. VIII-XXXI. 


I AND 2 SAMUEL. 39 


(3) The history of the government of David. 2 Sam. 
I.-XXIV. 


§ 7. Messianic Purpose of the Book. — “The Mes- 
sianic character of the Book of Samuel is one of its 
marked features. The central figure of the book, David, 
is also the central figure of Messianic prophecy; the 
man, who, most of all O. T. personages, in his life, ex- 
periences, and character, sums up the life of the ser- 
vants of God, and thus represents the great Head of 
them all. It is in this book that the three elements of 
the Jewish state, the prophetic, priestly, and kingly 
offices, are first fully established, and not only fix the 
development of typical Israel, but set forth the func- 
tions of the anointed Leader of the true Israel.” 
Lange, Introduction, Toy, C. H. 


§ 8. Difficulties.— 1. Adjustment of the chronology 
of the book. See Introductions, Cambridge Bible for 
Schools, Kirkpatrick, A. F., “ Books of Samuel,’ Smith’s 
Bib. Dict., Bible Com. 

2. Adjustment of the variations between the Hebrew 
Paoecteek texts, ¢.2, I. Sam; Chs. XVII. and XVIII. 
See Introductions and Lange. 

3. Adjustment of apparent discrepancies, ¢.g. I Sam. 
XXIII. 19, XXIV. 22, and Ch. XXVI. See Introduc- 
tions, Keil, Bleek, Lange’s Com, 


LITERATURE. 
‘The History of the Jews”. . 2.) Milmansis Ee 
“Daily Illustrations of the Bible,” ae By Porter, 
ele >. eee hae 4) coe eC ALLO gE be 


“ Hours with the Bible Gahivacs ods a at OPA ta? aes COL RIO sas, 


40 EARLIER PROPHETS. 


A ‘Book Study,” First Samuel, O. T. Student, 
March, ’86 a ey A Ren A 

‘ Books of Samuel,” Smith’s Bib. Dict. ‘* Introduc- 
tion to 2d Book of Samuel,” Monthly Inter- 
preter, May, °86 

“Critical History of David” . 

“Four Sermons on David” . 

‘* David the King of Israel” Neder bn 

“ Prophets and Kings of the O. 7. Ful a aaees Ws 

* Heroes of Hebrew History” 

“Shipwrecks of Faith” 

“History of the Jewish Church ” 

“The History of israel. 9/2 0te; Geis Wes fee me 


Harper, W. R. 


Smith, Raab: 
Chandler, S. 
Kingsley, C. 
Taylor, W. M. 
Maurice, F. D. 
Wilberforce. 
Trench, “kei 
Stanley, A. P. 
Ewald, H. 


4. 1 AND 2 KINGS. 
Chapters: 1 Kings, 22; 2 Kings, 25, 


§ 1. Title.— The name “Kings” is given to these 
books from their contents, and to distinguish them from 
the other books of this group. Originally they are sup- 
posed to have been one book, the division into two first 
appearing in the Sept. The two should be studied as 
one, and will thus be found to give a connected history 
from the reign of Solomon to the Babylonian Captivity. 


§ 2. Date.— Not earlier than 562 B.c., if unity of 
authorship is admitted. At the close of the book it is 
stated that King Jehoiachin was carried to Babylon 
(599 B.c.), and was a prisoner there thirty-seven years, 
and hence the events recorded bring us to the date 
above named. That the author wrote later than the 
Return from the Exile (§36 or 538) seems hardly credi- 
ble, inasmuch as no reference to that event, so joyful and 
so important, is mentioned. ‘The first notice of it is in 
Ezra, Ch. I. The composition of the book, if by one and 
the same author, must, therefore, be placed between 
662 B.c. and 536-8 B.c., or in the second half of the 
period of the Exile. 


§ 3. Author.— Unknown. . Jewish tradition, Jere- 
miah. Much can be said in favor of this from the 
possibility, the analogy of style, and the fact that the 
last chapter of Kings and the last chapter of Jere- 
miah so closely coincide in thought and language. 


42 EARLIER PROPHETS. 


This view is maintained by A. C. Hervey, Smith’s Bib. 
Dict., and Bible Com. Others (Bleek) deem it the 
work of Baruch, the amanuensis of Jeremiah. Others 
assign it to Ezra. Keil thinks it is the work of some 
citizen of Judah in Babylon during the Exile. 


§ 4. Sources.— The author cites only three sources 
under these titles, viz.: ‘The Book of the Acts of Solo- 
mon,’ 1 Kings XI. 41; “The Book of the Chronicles of 
the Kings of Judah,’ 1 Kings XIV. 29 sq.; and “The 
Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel,” 1 
Kings XIV. 19. sq. © Thesé ‘seem: to shave ieee 
separate works, current in the author’s time. The 
authors of these books are supposed to have been 
prophets, contemporaneous with the kings whose an- 
nals they give, such as Nathan, Ahijah, Iddo, Isaiah, 
etc. This opinion is maintained from parallel accounts 
in the Chronicles. The sections of the book pertaining 
to the lives and acts of Elisha and Elijah were probably 
drawn from some monograph. The whole book is a 
book of annals, showing honesty in the use of materials 
well known at the time, and probably perserved in the 
royal archives. 


§ 5. Unity and Independence of the Book. — Keil 
says: “Although the Books of Kings are for the 
most part extracts from more copious annals, yet they 
are not a compilation from various writings which are 
partly contradictory; they are the labored production 
of one author, upon a peculiar plan, whose internal 
unity is clear, as much from the symmetry of the repre- 
sentation as from the unity of the language.”’ Intro- 
duction, 27 loco. So Bleek. 





I AND 2 KINGS. 43 


$ 6. The Design of the Book. — As sacred history, 
the key of the book is found in the Messianic pas- 
sage, 2 Sam. VII. 12-15. This is as clearly the de- 
sign of the book as the alleged Messianic purpose of 
the Chronicles. There through the line of Judah the 
theocratic kingship of the house of David is kept his- 
torically distinct; here the promise to David and 
the threatenings in case of apostasy on the part of 
his descendants, yet securing the preservation of that 
line, are apparent on every page. Doing right in the 
sight of Jehovah, doing evil in the sight of Jehovah, 
walking in the footsteps of David, sinning after the sin 
of Jeroboam, son of Nebat, are the keys which unlock 
the secret of the rise and fall of the Jewish Empires. 


§ 7. Contents.— The history extends over a period 
of about 453 years; reckoning from Solomon’s acces- 
sion to the throne, 1015 B.c. (usual chronology), to 
the supplementary notice concerning the liberation of 
Jehoiachin, and perhaps a little later, about 562 B.c. It 
covers the whole history of the Israelitish monarchy, 
except the reigns of Saul and David, during its time of 
power and its period of decay and ruin; with its domin- 
ion from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean and the 
border of Egypt, reduced to a wretched remnant of ter- 
ritory subject alternately to Egypt and Assyria, 1 Kings 
Bye ot: 

It may be divided into three parts. 

Part 1. The history of the undivided kingdom under 
Solomon. 1 Kings I.-XI. 

Part 2. The history of the divided kingdoms to the 


44 EARLIER PROPHETS. 


fall of the kingdom of Israel. 1 Kings XII.-2 Kings 
XVII. 

Part 3. The history of the kingdom of Judah to the 
Babylonian Captivity. 2 Kings XVIII.-XXV. 


§ 8. Difficulties. — These are chiefly chronological, . 
especially in harmonizing the dates of different dynas- 
ties with similar accounts in the Chronicles and with 
the contemporaneous Assyrian chronology. ‘The diver- 
gencies are not very large, the harmony possible on the 
whole by various hypotheses; but minute exactness, 
by the Hebrew Text as we have it, and the Sept. as an 
aid, seems impossible. As yet no satisfactory solution 
has been found. The article ‘“ Kings” in Smith’s Bib. 
Dict. gives the facts quite fully. The introduction 
to the Bible Com. gives much historical confirmation 
from recent Assyrian and Egyptian researches. See 
also ‘The Ancient Empires of the East,” Sayce, A. H. ; 
“Ancient Monarchies,’ Rawlinson, G.; ‘“ By-paths of 
Bible Knowledge,” 8 vols., Plumptre, E. H.; ‘“Cunei- 
form Inscriptions,’ Schrader, E.; ‘“ Assyrian Inscrip- 
tions in their Bearing on O. T. History,” Plumptre, 
EE, He; The Expositor,/2d°Séries; vols.\ 1-2) ee 
Assyrian Eponym Canon and the Chronology of the 
Bible,” OQ. T. Student, June, ’86, Badger, Lo Fo ae 
Book of Kings in Modern Criticism,” O. T. Student, 
May, 86, Schodde, G. R.; Bib. Sac. vol. 44, Schwartz J. 


1 The statement of Hervey in Smith’s Bib. Dict. is very strong, but is 
worthy of consideration. He says, “The present text (7.e. Heb. Text), 
contains what are either conflicting calculations of antagonistic chronol- 
ogists, or errors of careless copyists, which no learning or ingenuity has 
ever been able to reduce to the consistency of truth.” 


eee A ero PR OP EES: 





THESE, as arranged in the Hebrew Bible, comprise 
two groups, (4) The Greater Prophets, (4) The Lesser 
Prophets. 


Beetle GheAl ih SROPALES. 


These are so called, not as an index of rank, but as 
an index of length. Included in this group are Isaiah, 
Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. 


RO 


1. ISAIAH. 
Chapters, 66. 

§ 1. The Author. — Of Isaiah we know that he was 
meeeeou of simoz, Ch. I.-1; 2 Kings XIX. 2;'’XX. 7, 
that his residence was probably in Jerusalem, Ch. VII. 
3 sq.; XXII. 1 sq., that he was a married man, Ch. 
VII. 3; VIII. 3, 18, and had several sons, that he was 
divinely called to his work as a prophet, Ch. VI., that 
he was the author of a sketch of Uzziah’s reign, 2 Chron. 
Penxeviee22,;and of the reign..of Hezekiah,.2 Chron: 
XXXII. 32, and that the events of his life as given in 
2 Kings XV.—XIX. include the capture of Samaria by 
Tiglath-Pilezer, Shalmanezer, and Sargon (Assyrians) 
during the reign of Ahaz, and the attack of Sennacherib 
upon Jerusalem, during the reign of Hezekiah. See 


46 LATER PROPHETS. 


“History of the Jewish Church,” Stanley, 7igees 
Smith’s Bib. Dict.; “An Ideal Biography of Isaiah,” 
Plumptre, E. H.; Expositor, vol. 5, 2d Series; “Isaiah, 
his Life, and Tinies, ’ Driver,-S2 R- 


§ 2. Chronology of his Prophecies. — According to 
the superscription (Ch. I. 1) they were given during the 
reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of 
Judah. If the superscription were intended to cover 
the whole book, then, according to the current chro- 
nology, his prophecies were uttered within the reign of 
Hezekiah, or prior to 698 B.c., the date of Hezekiah’s 
death. Uzziah, the first named king, died about 
759 B.C. Subtracting the date of the former from 
that of the latter, we have from death to death a min- 
istry of sixty-one years. Assuming that he was twenty 
years old at the beginning of his ministry, he would 
have been eighty years of age at the death of Hezekiah. 
Some think that his prophetical life extended into the 
reign of Manasseh, and that he died a martyr’s death. 
For this there is a Talmudic tradition, and the statement 
of Justin Martyr, ‘Dialogues with Trypho,” p. 349. 
That he lived later than the death of Hezekiah is per- 
haps implied in 2 Chron. XX XII. 32. His prophetical life, 
therefore, was ‘sufficiently long to cover what is called 
the “Earlier Prophecies” (Chs. IL—XXXIX.), and the 
“Later Prophecies, so called, Chs. XE-iaag 

If the superscription was intended merely as a head- 
ing to the “ Earlier Prophecfes,” the date of the “ Later 
Prophecies”’ is left in uncertainty. They belong to the 
canon, however, and must antedate 200 B.c. 





ISAIAH. ; 47 


§ 3. Unity of the Book as to Authorship. — The 
book has been assigned by Ewald to seven authors, and 
by others to many more. See “The Prophecies of 
Pematemecucyne, |, Ki vol. 2, Essays 1,2, 6: 


For Unity of Authorship, it is urged that there are 
both external and internal evidences. 


External Evidence — 

(2) Tradition, Christian and Jewish, e.g. Ecclesias- 
ticus XLVIII. 24, 25, covering both parts; Josephus, 
Antiquities, XI. 1. § 2, ditto, Jewish Synagogue; use of 
language by later prophets, eg. Jer. X. 1-16, cf. Is. 
Peeper lieve ier LL Liy cia ise X1V.;: Zeph. IT. 15, cf. 
Perel: oZepne Lilie 10,-cl. Is/ XVI. 1. and LX.'4. 
See Bible Com., “ Authenticity of Isaiah vindicated,” 
Smith, R. P. 

(2) Quotations in the N. T. — about 117 of them; and 
they are nearly equally divided between the so-called 
earlier and later prophecies. See “ Quotations in the 
mant., Loy, ©.H; Introductions, 


Internal Evidence — 


(a) Similarity of style. Granted by all critics. See 
“Monthly Interpreter,” April, ’86, Rawlinson, G. 

(6) Technical expressions common to both, e.g. “ The 
Servant of Jehovah,” “The Holy One of Israel,” pecu- 
liar to Isaiah. 

(c) Hymns as attached to prophecies, common ta 
both and peculiar. 

(Zz) The infrequency of visions, one in each. Chs. 
VI. and LXIII. 


48 LATER PROPHETS. 


(e) The infrequency of symbolical representations. 
Che: Villsexkexks and) Cheol E76. 


Against Unity of Authorship, it is urged by conser- 
vatives as well as by rationalists, that in the book there 
are at least two authors, a genuine and a pseudo-Isaiah. 
Their main contention is that the book was not written 
in the form in which we now have it, but that it is com- 
posed of various addresses of the prophet, with addi- 
tions in his spirit, put in their present form by his 
disciples, to which some writer unknown, later than 
Ezekiel, appended the last twenty-seven chapters. 
Their reasons are :— 

(2) That the standpoint of the writer is the Babylo- 
nian Exile. He sees his own cities in ruin. Ch. LXIV. 
10; 11 

(6) That he names the future deliverer, Cyrus (fost 
eventum). Ch. XLIV. 28 and XLV. 1; cf. 1 Kings 
OLLI Pez: 

(c) That the style and mode of representation in the 
Later Prophecies differ from those in the former (more 
flowing). | 

(zq) That the Talmud places Isaiah after Ezekiel, 
implying a later time than Isaiah for at least the 
Later Prophecies. See Bleek, vol..1, p. 36; (Tt seems 
to be an arrangement on technical grounds. 

(e) That the book is not prophecy fer se, but his- 
torical. 

The bulk of these objections pertains to the possi. 
bility of a revelation which gives antedated history. 


ISAIAH. 49 


§ 4. General Analysis.— Omitting that of Chs. I.- 
XXXIX., Chs. XL.-LXVI. may be divided for practi- 
cal purposes as follows :— | 


Theme, the Promised Redemption to the People of God. 
—- This is unfolded in the first division by a comforting 
comparison between Jehovah and idols, and between 
the chosen Israel and outside peoples. Chs. XL.- 
XLVIII. Thought, Jehovah’s ability and willingness 
to execute His purpose. 

In the second division the theme is unfolded by a 
comparison between the selected suffering Messiah and 
his subsequent glory, as indicating the medium for the 
execution of his purpose. Chs. XLIX.-LVII. 

In the third division it is unfolded by a comparison 
between the destiny, present and future, of those who 
welcome Messiah and identify themselves with him, 
and those who reject him. Chs. LVIII-LXVI. 

Summarily, there are three leading thoughts, viz., 
Redemption Promised, Redemption Provided, Redemp- 
tion in its Results. 


§ 5. Style. — Ewald says: “ Among the other proph- 
ets, each of the more important ones is distinguished 
by some one peculiar talent; in Isaiah, all kinds of 
talent and all beauties of prophetic discourse meet 
together, so as mutually to temper and qualify each 
other; it is not so much any single feature which dis- 
tinguishes him as the symmetry and perfection of the 
whole. 

Note. — Key-Words: 1. The name of the prophet, 
“JEHOVAH (is) SALVATION,” Is. VIII. 18. 2. Shear- 
Jashub, “A REMNANT SHALL RETURN,’ Is. VII. 3, 
eae. | 


50 LATER PROPHETS. 


LITERATURE. 


“ Messianic Prophecy” ~~ 2... 5 (5 de. de fois SOLIS 
«The Book of) Isaiah,?Chs. XU-LXVI.> The 

Expositor, vol.6: 2... 47 ss. & ah ae oe AVI some 
‘¢ Isaiah and the New Criticism,” O. T. Student, 

BEDE TOS arate - « « » Paterson aes 
*¢ Syllabus of the Mecainie propHeaes i ee Stearns, OF. 
‘“Introduction to the Book of Isaiah,” Monthly 

Interpreter, March, ’86, and April, °86. . . Rawlinson, G. 
‘** Authenticity of Isaiah vindicated” . . Smith, R. P. 
‘* The Revised Version of Isaiah,” XL. _LXVI. 

Bibi Sac. Wolvay aoe oe oe dius (s/t od OO ER eae 
‘*The Prophecy of Immanuel,” Is. VII.-XII. . 

Pres: Rev:,(Oct,*86 .yc2 ic 'sr ey) ae ee 
‘*Immanuel.” The Expositor, vol. Io . . . . Niger. 


2. JEREMIAH. 
Chapters, 52. 

§ 1. The Prophet and his Surroundings. — The 
name of this prophet, “Jehovah’s exalted one,” or 
‘Jehovah is exalted,” is somewhat significant. His life 
and work belong to the period of his people’s decay and 
ruin. The Jews of the Southern Kingdom were under 
the ban of Jehovah, doomed to exile, and he was the 
one raised up to warn them and guide them in their 
perilous condition. His book, narrative and prophecy, 
gives a more vivid picture of the condition of the people 
at that time than any historical book of the Old Testa- 
ment. Hence, in the interpretation of the book, famil- 
jarity with his times is a prime requisite. (For a 
graphic and full narrative of this period, see ‘ History 
of the Jewish Church,” Stanley, A. P., vol. 2, sec. 40.) 

These items are worthy of consideration : — 

(2) His birth-place, Anathoth (Ch. I. 1 and XXIX. 
27), a priestly town of the tribe of Benjamin, about 
four miles northeast from Jerusalem. 

(2) His priestly descent, the son of Hilkiah, a priest, 
od Oban lige @ 

(c) His call to be a prophet when a young man, in 
the thirteenth year of King Josiah (about 628 B.c.), Ch. 
meee O75 

(2) The ¢zme of his prophecies, embracing at least 
forty years. The period included in Ch. I. 3 takes in 
the last eighteen years of the reign of Josiah, the three 


52 LATER PROPHETS. 


months of Jehoahaz, the eleven years of Jehoiakim, the 
three months of Jehoiachin, and the eleven years of 
Zedekiah. 

(¢) His prophecies as pertaining to surrounding nations 
as well as to his own people, Ch. I. 10. In this respect 
unlike the prophets Elijah and Elisha. 

(7) His prophecies, many of them, as given under 
the peculiar circumstances of these several reigns, and 
therefore to be interpreted from their individual, his- 
torical standpoint. 

(zg) The finding of the Book of the Law in the 
eighteenth year of the reign of Josiah, by Hilkiah the 
high priest (2 Kings XXII.), (621 B.c.), on which the 
reformations of Josiah were based, undoubtedly giving 
him the text-book from which he preached his sermons 
to the royal house and the people. (See his use of 
Deut. in passages collected by Keil.) 

(2) The last scriptural account of him as found in 
Ch. XLIV. 1, his last prophecy as recorded, uttered 
“between the arrival in Egypt (about 585 B.c.) and the 
fulfilment (not earlier than 572 B.c.).” 

(2) His contemporaries. 

(a) Prophets: Ezekiel, Zephaniah (?), Daniel (?) 
(Daniel [.). 

(8) Kings: Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar of 
Babylonia; Pharaoh-Necho and Pharaoh-Hophrah of 
Egypt. 

Note. —In studying Jeremiah it is well to bear in 
mind that the end of the Southern Kingdom, with 
which his prophecies- have so much to do, came, accord- 
ing to the current chronology, 450 years after the begin- 
ning of the reign of David, 387 years after the seces- 


JEREMIAH. 53 


sion, and 138 after the overthrow of the Northern 
Kingdom. 





§ 2. Character and Style of the Book. — Jeremiah 
may be termed the unterrified preacher of righteous- 
ness to a sin-smitten people. He has been likened to 
Cassandra, the Trojan prophetess ; Phocion, the rival of 
Demosthenes ; and to Dante, protesting in vain against 
the coming judgments. His style is unadorned, repe- 
titious, showing familiarity with previcus prophets, and 
marked with pathos. As Umbreit says, “He is cer- 
tainly the greatest poet of desolation and sorrow, be- 
cause he most deeply feels them.” 


§ 3. Contents of the Book.— As the book now is, 
any effort to arrange its prophecies chronologically, is 
fruitless, for, says Streane (Camb. Bib.): “ Prophecies 
uttered in the reign of Zedekiah occur in the midst of 
those that relate to Jehoiakim. The Jewish captives 
carried to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar are addressed 
in words of comfort, several chapters earlier than the 
announcement made to Jehoiakim that the event is 
imminent, while the prophecies which chiefly form the 
‘later portion of the book and relate to foreign nations 
(Chs. XLVI.-LI.) were most or all of them delivered 
before the final overthrow of the city and kingdom.” 
(Introd., p. 80.) The order, whatever there is, must 
therefore be the order of subject-matter. And the 
internal evidence seems to.be that the prophet wrote, 
or caused to be written by his scribe, groups of prophe- 
cies as he uttered them, or afterwards, and that they 
were compiled possibly at least by himself, more prob- 


54 LATER PROPHETS. 


ably by another. See on this, Bleek and Keil, for dif- 
fering opinions. Horne is very full. As to an analysis, 
see Introds. 





§ 4. The Hebrew Text and Septuag 
differ from each other very markedly. In the Sept. as 
we now have it, the number of trifling omissions, with 
those of more importance, amounts “to about one-eighth 
part of the text as it stands in the Heb.” (Streane). 
The number of words omitted is about 2700. See Keil 
and. Horne. 

Note. —Ch. LII. is generally admitted to be an ap- 
pendix by another author. 


LITERATURE. 

‘¢Christology,” vol. 2, pp. 361-473, with 

reference to the Messianic portions . Hengstenberg, E. W. 
‘¢ History of the Jews,” vol. 1, pp. 439-448, 

for his literary characteristics . . . Milman, H. H. 
‘Lectitres on ‘Hebrew Poetry.” app. 177, 

178, for his poetie-qualities»..2'".) |. “Lowthak. 
‘¢Com. on Jeremiah and Lamentations” . Cowle, H. 
Encyclopedias . 


For an attempted errananen cf the ect 

ence to Jeremiah in Matt. XXVII. 9, 

see Smith’s Bib. Dict., art. ‘* Acel- 

dama,” appendix, and ‘‘ Hermeneutics” Fairbairn, P. 
‘‘The Text of Jeremiah,” Princeton Rev. 

VOI" S2 1, ae olen. bs ube! AT ECTININY omEen 
‘* Messianic Prophecn ah 8 oe) « fe DTC oSs teres 


3. EZEKIEL. 
Chapters, 48. 

§ 1. Author.— The name of the prophet signifies 
“God strengthens.”’ For his personal history we are 
entirely dependent upon the book which bears his name. 
There is no reference to him in any of the canonical 
books of the Old Testantent. Hence the conjectures 
of tradition. From his book we know :— 

(2) That he was of priestly descent, the son of Buzi, 
of whom we know no more, Ch. I. 8. 

(6) That he was a younger ‘contemporary of Jeremiah, 
prophesying both before and after the destruction of 
the Southern Kingdom. 

(c) That he was carried into captivity in Babylonia by 
Nebuchadnezzar, with King Jehoiakim (2 Kings XXIV. 
14 sq.), 599 B.c. (Bleek), and that his residence was on 
the banks of the river Chebar. 

(2) That he received his prophetical call in the fifth 
year of ‘ Jehoiachin’s captivity,” 594 B.c., Ch. I. 2. 

(e) That he was probably about twenty-five years of 
age at the time of his exile (Lange). 

(7) That his entire active service as a prophet belongs 
to the exile. 

(g) That the time of his prophesying was about twenty- 
two years (Ch. XXIX. 17), perhaps longer. 

(2) That he was a married man, his wife dying in the 
ninth year of his exile (Ch. XXIV. 18), 590 B.c., and that 
he lived in a house of his own, Chs. III. 24—VIII. 1. 


56 LATER PROPHETS. 


(¢z) That he was the prophet of counsel and comfort 
to his fellow-exiles, Chs. VIII. 1—XIV: 1, Xie 
XXXIII. 30. 

(7) That of his last days we know nothing except 
what is traditional, and, in the main, unreliable. 

Note. — Ezekiel supplements Jeremiah, and should be 
read and explained from that point of view. 





§ 2. Genuineness of his Prophecies. — Keil says: 
“The stamp of the prophet’s eminently peculiar indi- 
viduality is so plainly impressed upon the prophecies of 
Ezekiel, in thought and language, that doubts as to their 
genuineness have met with no response; and the authen- 
ticity of the entire book is unanimously acknowledged, 
even by the most recent expositors”’ (vol. I, p. 361). 
With him agree Ewald and Bleek. This is substan- 
tially true. The difficulties in Ezekiel are chiefly those 
of exposition. 


§ 3. Style.— Ezekiel abounds in allegory and sym- 
bols. With much diffuseness, he is exceedingly artistic. 
On account of its difficulties, “‘The Jews prescribed that 
no one should read it (the book) until thirty years of age”’ 
(Jerome, preface to Ezekiel; quoted by Havernick). 
Aramaisms are frequent, as in Jeremiah and Daniel. 
His familiarity with the Pent. is so apparent that the 
Newer Criticism makes him the father of the Priest- 
Codex. 


§ 4. Contemporaries. — Prophets: Jeremiah and 
Daniel. Kings: Josiah, Jehoahaz, Jehoiakim, Jehoia- 
chin, Zedekiah. 


EZEKIEL. 57 


§ 5. General Analysis. — Unlike Jeremiah, the proph- 
ecies of Ezekiel are arranged, in the main, chronologi- 
cally, dated from the time of his being carried into 
captivity. The book is divided into two main parts, 
— those prophecies antedating the destruction of Jeru- 
salem, and those subsequent to it, Chs. I-X XIV. and 
XXV.-XLVIII. Havernick’s division (art. ‘ Ezek.,” 
Smith’s Bib. Dict.) is as follows :— 

Pepieeckicl s*call;~ Chs. [)=lTI. 15. 

2. The general carrying out of the commission. Chs. 
III. 16—-VILI. 

3. The rejection of the people for their idolatry. 
Chs. VIII.-XI. 

4. The sins of the age rebuked in detail. Chs. XII.- 
XIX. 

5. The nature of the judgment, and the guilt which 
caused it. Chs. XX.-X XIII. 

6. The meaning of the punishment now commencing. 
Ch. XXIV. 

7. God’s judgment on seven heathen nations. Chs. 
XXV.-XXXII. 

8. Prophecies after the destruction of Jerusalem, con- 
cerning the future condition of Israel. Chs. XX XIII- 
XXXIX. 

9. The glorious consummation. Chs. XL.-XLVIII. 


§ 6. Some Peculiarities in the Book. — (a) The 
prophet’s symbolical acts, — real or in vision? Some 
of them would be impossible; and others, ineffective, 
because unknown to those for whom they were intended, 
Seely. 1-0, V. 3; etc. See Lange, Introd.;. Fair. 


58 LATER PROPHETS. 


bairn, P., “Prophecy viewed in Respect to its Distinc- 
tive Nature,” etc. 

(4) The method of interpreting Chs, XL.—XLVIII. 
Four methods have been employed: (1) the allegorical 
(dangerous) ; (2) historical (destructive) ; (3) symbolical 
(to be guarded) ; (4) typical (safe). 

(c) Inquiries as to what is the significance of the 
Cherubim, Gog and Magog, etc. See Lange; also all 
literature connected with Babylonian researches, which 
throw light upon Ezekiel’s mode of teaching. See 
“Cuneiform Inscriptions of the Old Testament,” Schra- 
der, E.; The Expositor, vol.1, 2d. semes/sara ae 
Plumptre, E. H.; “Egypt and Babylon,” Rawlinson, 
Cr: 

LITERATURE. 


SeIntrod: 10. Zekiel ~ cr, eraser : ; Havernick, H. A. C. H. 
Bib. Sac:wolss: 
‘* Messianic Prophecy,” ch.9° = 3.) Briges, Caw. 


B. LESSER PROPHETS. 





1. HOSEA. 
Chapters, 14. Order: Hebrew, 1; Septuagint, 1. 


§ 1. Author. — The Book of Hosea heads a group of 
twelve books, termed Minor Prophets. This epithet is 
given to them, not on account of rank, but on account 
of the limited extent of their productions. The whole 
scarcely equals in extent the Book of Jeremiah or of 
Ezekiel. In the catalogues and Mss. they are reckoned 
as one book, a mode of grouping, according to Bleek, as 
early as the second century s.c. (see Ecclesiasticus 
XLIX. 10). They cover a period in the history of the 
Jews from about 800 B.c. to 450 B.c. The order of ar- 
rangement as to the first six differs in the Septuagint 
from that in the Hebrew, the Hebrew probably being 
the more authoritative. Many deem the order chrono- 
logical, and place Hosea as the earliest, on this account, 
but he stands there probably because his book is the 
longest. Each of the books must be tested chronologi- 
cally by historical evidence. 

As to Hosea personally, we know little beyond what 
his book reveals. His name is significant. It is the 
same as that of the last of the kings of the Northern 
Kingdom, and as the original name of the successor of 
Moses, Numb. XIII. 8, 16; cf. Deut. XXXII. 44. Its 


60 LATER PROPHETS. 


meaning is “Salvation.” He is not spoken of in the Old 
Testament except in his own book. In the superscrip- 
tion (Ch. I. 1), he is called the son of Beeri, of whom 
we know nothing more. Hosea was probably a native 
of the Northern Kingdom. This appears from the Ara- 
maic character of his style, and from the aim of his pre- 
dictions. They have to do especially with the downfall 
of the Northern Kingdom. Stanley calls him the “ Jere- 
miah of Israel.” 


§ 2. Time of his Prophesying.— The superscription 
asserts that Hosea prophesied “in the days of Uzziah, 
Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah, and in 
the days of Jeroboam, the son of Joash, king of Israel.” 
(The same heading as to the kings of Judah is found in 
Isaiah I. 1.) The period from Uzziah’s death to the 
first year of Hezekiah would be thirty-two years. Jero- 
boam II. died a long time before Uzziah; how long is 
uncertain, probably, says Bleek, twenty-six years. So 
that allowing even that Hosea began his prophesying 
but a short time before the death of Jeroboam II., and 
extended it to the beginning of the reign of Hezekiah, 
his prophetic ministry must have covered a period of at 
least fifty years. Some say fifty-six years, others fifty- 
nine, Pusey seventy. This is a very long ministry, and 
there is also a mystery in the mention seriatim of the 
kings of Judah, and the mention of but one of the kings 
of Israel, since his mission was emphatically to Israel. 
See Camb. Bible, Bleek, Keil. 


§ 3. General Analysis.— A minute analysis is an 
impossibility. The style of Hosea is so passionate, his 
transitions so abrupt, and his language often so enig- 


HOSEA. 61 


matical, that it is more difficult to trace the exact thread 
of his thought than in any of the prophets. Pusey says, 
“Fach verse forms a whole in itself, like one heavy 
toll in a funeral knell.” Unlike Amos, his senior, he 
has no symmetrical divisions. But the book may be 
divided into two books: First, prophecies on the apos- 
tasy of Israel under the symbol of the marriage rela- 
tion, Chs. I-III. Secondly, a series of prophecies 
pertaining in the main to the downfall of Israel, Chs. 


IV.-XIV. 


§ 4. Methods of Interpreting. — Chs. I-III. 

(a) The Literal, That under divine command the 
prophet actually married a profligate woman. This is 
the view of the Medizval and Reformation commen- 
tators. Endorsed by Pusey. Hard to accept. 

(6) The Modified Literal View. That the prophet 
married a woman whose tendencies were to profligacy 
and who proved unfaithful. Ewald, Wellhausen, Cheyne. 

(c) The Vistonary Theory. The prophet saw in vision 
that which he objectively describes. Christology, vol. 
I, p. 177, Hengstenberg, E. W.; Minor Prophets, pp. 
3-4 and 413-415, Cowles, H. 

(qd) The Typical or Parabolic Theory. The prophet 
states in parabolic form the relation of Jehovah to Israel 
as a husband to an unfaithful wife. Bleek, § 281; 
“Prophecy viewed in respect to its Distinctive Nature,” 
etc., Fairbairn, P.; Hermeneutics, Fairbairn, P.; O. T. 
Seucent,.jan,, $5, Elliott, C. 

Messianic Passages.— Hosea III. 57; XI. 1; cf. 
Matt. II. 14, 15. N. T. quotation as to the conversion 
femeancatnen, Ch. J. 10; cf. Ch, II; 23 and Kom: IX. 
meeatoe Pet. II. ro. 


2. JOEL. 
Chapters: Eng., 3; Heb,, 4. Order: Heb., 2; Sept, 4. 


§ 1. Author.— His name meaning “ Jehovah is God,” 
a common name, is used nowhere else for the prophet, 
and is expressive of his mission. He belonged prob- 
ably to the Southern Kingdom and at the time of his 
prophecies resided in Jerusalem. Chs, I. 9; I. 14; II. 
pai tas 


§ 2. Date.— Critics vary from the tenth century B.c. 
to the second B.c. There is little doubt, however, that 
Joel was the earliest or nearly the earliest of the 
prophets whose writings have been transmitted to us. 
The probability is that he wrote in the middle part of 
the reign of Uzziah, about 800 B.c. Keil places him in 
the reign of Joash, between 877 and 847 8.c. Wiinsche, 
from a careful array of historical facts, deems him the 
earliest of the Minor Prophets, and assigns as the date, 
earliest 890 B.c., latest 840 B.c., or as a medium 860— 
850 B.c. See Lange. The Newer Criticism, on account 
of the strong evidence in the book that the ritual was 
in full force when he spoke and wrote, place him after 
the exile; but, as Professor Briggs says, ‘“ His intense 
yet classic style, the reference to the Philistines and 
Arabians as the chief enemies, the general and indefi- 
nite representation of the Messianic idea, as well as his 
entire theological attitude, point to the earlier times.” 
“Messianic Prophecy,” p. 153. 


JOEL. 63 


For the time of Uzziah, see Bleek. For that of Joash, 
see Keil. 


§ 3. Methods of Interpretation. — These are two, 
the literal and the symbolical. The one considers the 
devastation of the locusts to be an actual fact; the 
other, as a symbol of invading foes. And with this 
query, another question has been mooted, whether the 
prophet speaks of a present calamity or a future one. 
The symbolical method has much in its favor; see for 
summary, O. T. Student, Feb. ’85, Elliott (C.); and is 
the view maintained by Pusey, Keil, and others. It 
was the view of the ancient Jews and the Christian 
Fathers. If the literal view is accepted, it must refer 
to the present or the past. The symbolical involves 
the future and places Joel as a sort of general Messianic 
teacher to the other prophets. As Professor Elliott 
says, in the article referred to, ““We see the fundamental 
significance of the prophecies of Joel (a) in his clear 
-and precise prediction of the coming of the day of the 
Pere sy lr 5s TiS ry 2). 12; 

(6) Inthe promises of Israel’s future. Chs. II. 18-27; 
III. 16-21. 

(c) In the prediction of the effusion of the Holy 
Spirit. Ch. II. 28-209. 


§ 4. Analysis. — According to the literal view — 

1. The infliction of the plague and its removal. Chs. 
I.-II. 27. 

2. The refreshing rain, typifying the Holy Spirit, 
restoring the barrenness of the land. Ch. II. 28-32. 

3. The day of judgment, typified by the destruction 


64 LATER PROPHETS. 


of the locusts, and the reign of righteousness which 
followediit;= .Ghs lieL Vy: 

According to the symbolical view — 

1. Judgments threatened, with a call to repentance. 
Chs. I.-II. 27. 

2. Salvation promised to the penitent, with richer 
blessings than those they had lost. Ch. II. 18-29. 

3. The contrast between Jehovah’s dealings with his 
own people and other nations. Chs. II. 30-IV. 





§ 5. Messianic Passage. — Ch. III.; cf. Acts II. and 


ROM. NAT e, ss 


§ 6. Style. — Classical, pure. 


LITERATURE. 
Books referred to on Amos : — 


OT. Student, Dec."85; and"fan. "84.7.9. "|. Cortes meee 
O.:T:-Student,-Feb.. 2355-8. ©: of et Je 2 Ite ee 
Monthly Interpreter, Sept. ’86, aid F is 186 - « Redford, R.A. 


3. AMOS. 
Chapters, 9. Order: Heb.,3; Sept., 2. 


§ 1. Author and Date.— Of Amos we know — 

(2) His name, signifying “Burden” or “ Burden- 
some”’; an index of his work as a prophet of woe to 
the Northern Kingdom and the surrounding nations. 

(4) His probable home in the Southern Kingdom. Ch. 
VII. 10 sq. 

(c) His residence at the time he was called to proph- 
esy, [Tekoa, a town in the tribe of Judah (2 Chron. XI. 
6), distant from. Bethel twenty-four miles (south to 
Monje see omith s Bib. Dict. art.“ Tekoa,” 

(2) His occupation, a herdman and a gatherer of 
sycamore fruit; ze. one of low social position. Ch. 
Wailers. 

(e) And according to tradition, on which little reliance 
can be placed, that he died a martyr’s death, “ Minor 
Prophets,” Pusey, p. 150. 

As to the date of his prophecies, according to the 
superscription (Ch. I. 1), they fall into the period be- 
tween 810 and 783 B.c. He prophesied while Jeroboam 
II. of Israel and Uzziah of Judah were contemporaries ; 
z.e. during the last twenty-seven years of Jeroboam’s 
Pieoeoewines OClVe 2, 7,029 +ocl., 2: Kings ax V, 1 If 
we knew the time of the earthquake referred to in Ch. 
I. 1, and also by Zechariah in Ch. XIV. 5, we could 
determine the time more precisely. The Northern 
Kingdom at the time of his prophesying was at the 


66 LATER PROPHETS. 


zenith of its prosperity in extent of domain and in com- 
mercial thrift, and his woes upon it indicate gross cor- 
ruption on the part of the people, and boldness on his 
part in denouncing it. 


§ 2. Style. — Rugged, clear, crisp, and full of im- 
agery suggested by his shepherd life. 


§ 3. Messianic Passage. — Ch. IX. 8-12. 





§ 4. Analysis. — The book is probably a compilation 
of the prophet’s oral discourses at Bethel. It is divided 
into three parts :— 

1. Introduction. Chs. I.—-II. 

2. Prophetic addresses. Chs. III.-VI. 

3. Visions with brief explanations. Chs. VII.-IX. 


LITERATURE. 


Intros., Coms., Imperial Dict., Lange (Chambers ), 
Bible Com., Minor Prophets . . . . . « /Cowlesem 
‘‘ Prophets and Prophecy in Israel” . . . . . Kuenen, A. 
: Prophetssof israel tas, ar ee - » oSmith; Wee 


On passages implying knowledge aa the Poe see 

‘* A Study of the Pent..” pp. 121-126 < . . Stebbingoakesee 
O. TeStudent ept. SS s -. 4% is < ste ess ee 
‘Messianic Prophecy” .°. . . + « » « = DFieespenma 


4. OBADIAH. 
Chapter, 1. Order: Heb., 4; Sept, 5. 


This little book recalls the old feud between Jacob 
and Esau, and identifies itself with the history of the 
two nationalities, so marked throughout the O. T. as to 
render Edom and Jacob world-types of the foes and 
friends of God. It is a choice book to the modern 
orthodox Jew. In it he reads the final supremacy of 
his own people. Taught by his Rabbins to interpret — 
Edomites as Christians, and Edom as Rome, the glow- 
ing imagery of the last part of the book, assures him 
that the final triumph of Judaism is certain. 


§ 1. Author and Date.— All we know of the author 
is contained in the first two words of the book; “The 
vision of Obadiah.” The name signifies “The Servant 
of Jehovah,” a very common one in the O. T. 

The date is quite uncertain. The key to the date is 
found in the interpretation of vss. 10-14. What plun- 
dering and sacking of Jerusalem is here referred to? 
If to the captivity of Nebuchadnezzar, he would have 
written it somewhat later than 588 B.c.; if to the 
earlier captivity of Nebuchadnezzar during the reign of 
Jehoiakim, between 606 and 588 B.c. But the passage 
carefully examined does not necessarily refer to the 
final overthrow of Jerusalem; its language implies no 
more than a capture in which Jerusalem was put under 
tribute, and some of its people sold as slaves. Of the 


68 LATER PROPHETS. 


six} plunderings of Jerusalem there is much to favor 
that of the Philistines and Arabians, in the reign of 
Jehoram (2 Chron. XXI. 16-17), which accords with 
the view of Keil, Delitzsch, and Kleinert. This would 
place the prophecy of Obadiah between 889-884 B.c. 
Some place much stress for the date of the book upon 
its location after the Book of Amos. But though the 
compiler may have had some chronological purpose in 
mind, each book must be tested by itself. The first 
nine verses resemble Jeremiah XLIX. 7 sq., and many 
think that Obadiah was a copyist of Jeremiah, and 
therefore his contemporary; but the well-known habit 
of Jeremiah in his use of earlier writers, and a careful 
comparison of the two passages favor Obadiah as the 
original. See O. T. Student, May, 1884. 


§ 2. Scope of the Book.— It is a prophecy against 
the Edomites for their unnatural enmity and cruel treat- 
ment of the Southern Kingdom in the day of its adver- 
sity. Those who should have been friends are the 
meanest of foes; andas a result their doom is sounded. 


1 ATTACKS ON JERUSALEM: — 


I. By Shishak, in fifth year of Rehoboam. 1 Kings XIV. 25, 26; 2 
Chron. XII. 2 sq. 

2. By Philistines and Arabians, in the reign of Jehoram. 2 Chron. 
b D 04 ES Com ty 2 

3. By Joash of Israel, in the reign of Amaziah. 2 Kings XIV. 13, 14; 
2 Chron. XX. 23, 24, 

4. By Nebuchadnezzar, in reign of Jehoiakim. 2 Kings XXIV. 1 sqq.; 
2 Chron. XXXVI. 6, 7. 

5. By Nebuchadnezzar, in reign of Jehoiachin. 2 Kings XXIV. 10 
sqq.; 2 Chron. XXXVI. Io. 

6. By Nebuchadnezzar, in reign of Zedekiah. 2 Kings XXV.sqq.; 2 
Chron. XXXVI. 17, I9. 


OBADIAH. 69 


§ 3. Fulfilment.— For this, see art. ‘“ Obadiah,” 
Smith’s Bib. Dict. The last verses of the prophecy 
seem to demand both a real and a typical fulfilment. 

Note.—In connection with this prophecy, cf. Ezekiel. 
Chs. XXV. and XXXV.; Lam. IV. 21; Ps. CXKXXVII. 


LITERATURE. 
Dees POCUCtIION sols. +s w « « + « -Kleineért; P; 
Us Obadiah e . . e ® e . . e ° e . . . Smith’s Bib. Dict. 


PUL LODUCTS © Sage teviic. « “otis sits s «. Pusey. 
Pao. F; Pee es shah cs) ucyclopedias, 


Omi orucent, May 10d4ii86 ac, «tc. o, « « Elliott, C. 


5. JONAH. 
Chapters, 4. Order: Heb., 5; Sept., 6. 

§ 1. The Prophet.— Of Jonah himself, we know 
nothing beyond what is recorded in the book bearing 
his name, Ch. L 1, and in. 2. Kings XIV. 25pm 
these sources we learn — 

(2) That he was a prophet of the Northern Kingdom 
during the reign of Jeroboam II., 825-784 B.c. 

(4) That his birth-place was Gath-hepher, a town west 
of the Jordan, near Nazareth. 

(c) That his prophetical office connects itself very 
closely with the early part of Jeroboam’s reign. If so, 
he would be a contemporary with Hosea and Amos. 
His name means “A Dove,” perhaps a symbol of 
timidity, shrinking from his commission. 





§ 2. Historical Character of the Book. — The book, 
instead of being a prophecy lke the other books of 
this group, is the story of “The Special Mission of a 
Prophet,” and it contains so much of the supernatural, 
that it has been the butt of ridicule from the time of 
Julian (A.D. 360) until the present day. For an elaborate 
discussion of the claims of the book as veritable history, 
see O. T. Student, Oct., ’83; Nov., ’83; March, ’84, 
Harper, W. R. 


§ 3. Author of the Book and Date. — Jewish tradi- 
tion ascribes its authorship to the prophet himself, and 
there are more difficulties in finding some other author 


JONAH. as 


than in admitting the truthfulness of the tradition. The 
chief objections are peculiarities of style (Aramaisms), 
and reminiscences of Psalms in Ch. II., which are 
deemed of late date. For such reasons and those of a 
subjective character, ze. the miraculous element and 
the legendary element, the author is supposed to be 
unknown, and his time, that of Josiah, or the Assyrian 
exile, or the Babylonian exile, or the time of the Macca- 
bees, etc. See, for the traditional view, “ Minor Proph- 
ets,’ Pusey, E.B. For another view, Lange, Kleinert, P. 


§ 4. Analysis. — As substantially given by Perowne, 
T. T., in Cambridge Bible for Schools. 

“‘t, Jonah’s disobedience and punishment. Ch. I. 

‘2, Jonah’s prayer and deliverance. Ch. II. 

“2. Jonah’s preaching and its result. Ch. III. 

“4. Jonah’s displeasure and its rebuke. Ch. IV.” 


§ 5. Design of the Book.— Some find in it a whole 
system of theology. Others treat it as myth, legend, 
parable, and allegory, with sundry purposes. If its 
canonicity is accepted, which there is no reason to 
doubt, its purpose must ally itself with the general pur- 
pose of the other prophetical books. That main purpose 
is to unfold the dealings of God with his own people as 
surrounded with the hostile, idolatrous nations. Jonah’s 
mission would, therefore, have to do in the main with 
the well-being of his own nation, the real kingdom of 
God. The lessons of this book may be, I think, summed 
up thus :— 

(2) The prophets had affirmed that the enemies of 
Israel were to be overthrown. 


72 LATER PROPHETS. 


(6) In times of degeneracy this thought begat Phari- 
seeism, and the prophets threatened national destruc- 
tion. 

(c) But Nineveh, though an enemy and idolatrous, 
should be treated on the broad principles of justice and 
mercy, — justice if non-repentant, mercy if repentant. 

(2) Israel would thus be condemned for her own nar. 
rowness, and catch a bird’s-eye view of her own mis- 
sion. She would be taught catholicity, see her own 
call to repentance, and enlarge her vision as to her 
missionary work. 

(e) The book thus becomes a picture of two texts, — 
Rom. IX.; Acts X. 34-43. 


§ 6. Methods of Interpretation. — Those who admit 
the historical character of the book may be classified 
thus :— 

(a) The Historical, with a didactic moral against the 
bigotry of the Jews, — Bleek and others. 

(6) The Symbolical, enunciating in each part some 
scriptural doctrine, — Lange, Kleinert, P. 

(c) The Historical-Typical, finding in it Jonah as the 
type of Christ, — Keil, C. F.; Cambridge, Perowne, T. T. 
This view depends largely on the use made of it in 
Matt. XII. 40, 41; cf. John VII. 23, 24, and Acts XX Vi 
23. See also Luke XI. 29-32, and Matt. XVI. 4. 

Note. — As atype of Christ the analogy requires no 
more than the incident in Jonah’s history which illus- 
trates the resurrection of Christ. Types should always 
be limited to the specific idea or fact in a person or 
event for which they are used. 


JONAH. 73 


LITERATURE. 


BeerIGMEEOU Morse fle sls 6s ow of buUSsey, Es Ri 
somerophecy;”..-. oie, en WAVISORS A. 

‘* Jonah the Prophet " Bib. an mah TORE ae oie oo LOWELL ES te 
Beoman = Gourd,” Bib. Sac. vol.12- . . . . Stowe, C. E. 
Sememares 202 2 4 se 8 ew 6 ee oe Kalischy Mu M. 
Pee tIMGAVS) Leis oe sis Os  «e CWright,C. HOH, 
somnirarrophets;’ ...7. : Henderson, E. 

‘‘ Jonah: his Life, anerdiee sal Mice "etc. Fairbairn, P. 


6. MICAH. 
Chapters, 7. Order: Heb., 6; Sept., 3. 


§ 1. Author. — Our knowledge of him, as of so many 
of the other prophets, is limited to his own work. Of 
him we know, — 

(az) The meaning of his name, ‘“ Who is like Jehovah.” 
A use of it perhaps in Ch. VII. 18. 

(2) His birth-place, “the Morashtite”’ ; z.e. a native of 
Moresheth, a small town “in the maritime plain near 
Gath,”’-Ch. I. 14. _ Bib. Res, in Pal vol. 2,7 ee 
is thus distinguished from the noted Micaiah of Ahab’s 
reign, 1 Kings XXII. 

(c) That according to the heading he prophesied in 
the reigns of Jotham, 758-742 B.c., Ahaz, 742-727 B.c., 
and Hezekiah, 727-698 B.c. Lange, Kleinert, P. These 
headings are not ultimate authority, and must be scruti- 
nized as much as a heading to a psalm. If Micah’s 
prophecies are arranged chronologically, there is a grave 
difficulty in adjusting a quotation from him, Ch. III. 12, 
in Jer. XX VI. 18, inasmuch as it implies that but few 
if any of the previous prophecies were uttered in the 
days of Jotham and Ahaz, while it leaves the remaining 
chapters in the reign of Hezekiah also. The arrange- 
ment, therefore, probably is not chronological; but an 
arrangement of thought by the prophet or a compiler, 
giving notes of Micah’s numerous prophecies. See 
Cambridge, Cheyne, -T. K.;+Lange, /Kleinveriai 

(dq) That his contemporaries were Hosea and Amos, 


MICAH. 75 


during part of their ministry in Israel, and Isaiah the 
prophet of Judah. With Isaiah there are many resem- 
blances of thought and style. See Coms. for passages. 

(e) That his prophecies have to do with the overthrow 
of Samaria and Jerusalem. 

(f) That his prophecies relate to the invasions of 
Shalmanezer (Ch. I. 6, 7), (Sargon ?), the destruction of 
Jerusalem (Chs. III. 12 and VII. 13), the Captivity in 
Babylon (Ch. IV. 10), the establishment of a theocracy 
in Jerusalem, and a ruler who should spring out of 
Bethlehem, Chs. IV. 1-8; VII. 11 and 14-17. Micah’s 
“last words,” says Stanley, “are those which centuries 
afterwards were caught up by the aged priest, whose 
song unites the Old and New Testaments together.” 
Micah VII. 18-20; cf. Luke I. 72, 73. ‘ History of the 
Jewish Church,” vol. 2, pp. 492-494. 


§ 2. Style. — Simple, vivid, energetic, yet often so 
concise as to be obscure. See “ Minor Prophets,” Pusey, 
BE. 


§ 3. General Analysis.— As the text stands, there 
* is a natural division of the book into three parts, each 
beginning with the same word, announcing judgments, 
and closing with a promise of salvation to the people of 
God. These divisions are Chs. I., II., III.—V., and VI.— 
VII. See Encye. Brit., Camb. Bib., Smith’s. Bib. Dict. 


§ 4. Messianic Passages. — Micah V. 2-4; cf. Matt. 
II. 6. Also Micah IV. 1-8. 


7. NAHUM. 
Chapters, 3. 

§ 1. Author and Date.— Of the author we know 
nothing beside the superscription which gives his name 
and birth-place, Ch. I. 1. His name in Hebrew signi- 
fies “consolation”; fitting word for his work. His 
birth-place is said to be Elkosh, “an Elkoshite,” being 
a Gentile name indicative of place of birth. This 
Elkosh has been supposed to be a village of Galilee, 
but some have preferred an Alkosh or Elkosh, on the 
eastern bank of the Tigris, near Mosul and the ancient 
Nineveh, where is to be found his pretended grave. 
Layard thinks that grave is of Christian origin. ‘‘ Nine- 
veh and its Remains,” vol. 1, pp. 197 sq. If the latter 
were his birth-place, he would belong to the Israelitish 
exiles of Assyria, and his prophecies would have ema- 
nated near the scene of ruin he portrays. But the 
grounds for such a claim are insufficient. 

(az) It is claimed that the book contains Assyrian 
words, but that might arise from his familiarity with 
them as a Judean; words of common use. 

(2) That the description of Nineveh is too vivid for a 
foreigner. Granting the vividness, a city so noted 
might be well known to a Palestinian. 

(c) That the main purpose of the prophet was to pre- 
dict the ruin of Nineveh, and therefore it would nat- 
urally be written or given in its neighborhood. Its 
purpose is for the consolation of his own people by the 
overthrow of their enemies. 


NAHUM. yy: 


On the other hand in favor of Judea : — 


(2) His familiarity with Palestine as indicated in Ch. 
ber Awih, 

(2) His acquaintance with the prophecies of Isaiah, 
who was probably his contemporary. See Coms. 

(c) His purpose to comfort his people, the Southern 
Kingdom, the Northern being already destroyed, seems 
to call for his work among his own people. 

As to the date of the composition of the book, critics 
differ, but all of them place it later than the overthrow 
of the Northern Kingdom. Some— Jerome, Hender- 
son, E,—place it in the latter half of Hezekiah’s reign, 
before the invasion of Sennacherib, 712-700 B.c. ; others, 
— Keil, Kuenen, Bleek, — after that invasion, 7oI- 
697 B.c.; others, — Kleinert, Schrader, —in the time of 
Manasseh, about 660 B.c.; others, — Hitzig, Ewald, — 
about 636 B.c. in the reign of Josiah. It is noteworthy 
that all these critics place the book prior to the event 
foretold. Nineveh fell in 606 B.c. See Layard, vol. 2, 
eieo.) lange, Klemert, P.,.pp. 11,12. -Others-put: the 
date 626 B.c. 


§ 2. General Analysis.— The book may be divided 
by chapters. 

I. Nineveh doomed, because the long-suffering God 
can bear its oppression no longer. Ch. IL. 

II. Nineveh in ruins and God’s people exultant. 
Chol. 

III. Nineveh suffers what she deserves, and her 
resistance is hopeless. Illustrated by the overthrow of 
suaebes. Ch. ITT. 

See a minute analysis, Bib. Sac. vol. 5, Edwards, 
Bab. 


78 LATER PROPHETS. 


§ 3. Style.— Professor Edwards says, “In grandeur 
of style, in condensed energy, in elevation of sentiment 
and rapid transitions, and in a certain completeness of 
representation, Nahum stands, if not the very first, yet 
near the very first of the Hebrew prophets.” 

Note. — Nahum should be read in connection with 
Jonah, the latter illustrating the compassion of God 
to outside nations who are repentant; the former, the 
righteousness of God executed upon those unrepent- 
ant. There is nothing Messianic in this book. 


LITERATURE. 
Bib. Sac. vol. .§,-artaby -Al2s-Wies!) ne pee 2 wardens 


A fine specimen of careful exegesis. 


The Heb. Student, Oct. ’82 


Intro.’ towWanee wor a ee. 8. Ae eek ee 
“Nineveh and its Remains”. . Layard, A. H. 
“The Five Great Monarchies of ‘the Aiba 

Eastern World,” vol.I. ... . Rawlinson, G. 


Art. ‘* Nineveh,” Smith’s. Dict. Bib. ; : alec tise 

zog’s Encyc. and Encyc. Brit. 
“Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis Restored”. Ferguson, James. 
‘“¢ Nineveh and the Bible,” Brit. Quar. vol. 9. 
‘¢ Nahum’s Prophecy,” Princeton Rev. vol. 27 . Green, W. H. 
‘cCunéiform-Inscriptions ?./ 5 4.45. +) = ochragemen 
*<« Assyrian Discoveries”... s). . & 4» «© Duin gees 


8. HABAKKUK. 
Chapters, 3. 

§ 1. Author. — His name signifies “embracing,” and 
Luther paraphrased it, as “taking to one’s heart,” indic- 
ative of his identification with his people and his patriotic 
zeal for them. His name does not elsewhere occur in 
tie On Le tie is called a:prophet:(Chs/ I 1:and,JI1. 1), 
but nothing else is affirmed concerning him or of the 
age in which he lived. There is a legend that he was 
miraculously transported to Babylon as a comforter to 
Daniel when in the lions’ dens, found in the apocryphal 
book, “Bel and the Dragon,” in which some have 
found a clue to the date of his prophecy, and to his 
descent from the house of Levi, but it is too apocryphal 
to be of much worth. 


§ 2. Date.— Critics differ as to the time of Habak- 
kuk’s prophecy, but most of them divide between a 
preference for the reign of Jehoiakim, 612-5098 B.c., 
and the early part of the reign of Josiah, about 630 B.c. 
For the former view, see Lange, Kleinert ; for the lat- 
ter view, see Keil’s Intro. The difficulty consists in 
fixing, from internal evidence, the condition of the people 
with reference to the Chaldean invasion of Judah by 
Nebuchadnezzar. The earlier date gives a longer time 
for the action of the prophecy. The later date would 
place it just previous to the invasion, or during the 
invasion. eae 


8O LATER PROPHETS. 


§ 3. Unity of the Book.— Some desire to separate 
the third chapter from the other two as a distinct 
prophecy, but the majority of the best critics maintain 
the completeness of the work in its present form. 


§ 4. Style. — All Hebrew scholars consider the book, 
especially the last chapter, as among the noblest efforts 
of Hebrew genius. Habakkuk’s style is in the main 
pure, his illustrations fresh, his conceptions original. 
Ewald says of him, “He is the last prophet belonging 
to the age preceding the destruction of Jerusalem, who 
is master of a beautiful style, of powerful description, 
and an artistic power that enlivens and orders every- 
thing with charming effect.’’ Ewald’s “ Prophets,” vol. 


3, P. 32. 


§ 5. Design of the Book.—The design of this 
prophecy is to portray the sovereignty of God as chas- 
tening his people for their sins, and also visiting with 
deserved punishment those who as godless agents seek 
to destroy them. Wickedness shall not go unpunished, 
but woe unto those who take the rod of God into their 
own hands. The consoling thought as illustrated in 
the prophet’s experience is, that a good man though 
deprived of all human support, and stripped of his 
earthly possessions, may still be happy in God alone, as 
the bestower of higher spiritual blessings. 


§ 6. General Analysis.— 1. The wickedness of God’s 
people so great as to merit punishment. Ch. I. 1-4. 

2. This punishment shall be inflicted by the Chal- 
Geach ale cote 

3. For this inflicting of punishment the Chaldeans 


HABAKKUK. SI 


shall themselves be punished on account of the wicked- 
Mess of their purpose, Ch. I>13; I. 

4. As an answer to the prayer of Habakkuk he sees 
the Chaldeans discomfited and the Jews rescued. 


LITERATURE. 


Sebiessiatic brophecy 5) 6°.) <4 «, «| Briggs, C..A., 2% loco. 
BeNeROR GS EAVES SL.) o 2 nae, 6. 5) es Ewald; EE. 


“Minor Prophets”. . Keil. 
‘‘New Translation of ucbrce Prophets, 
Se See og ees ee OVes:. Cra, tua 


‘¢ The Spirit of Peper ‘Pocay”. pete nse e) | LAYIOL, Le 


9. ZEPHANIAH. 
Chapters, 3. 

§ 1. Author and Date.— Of this prophet we know 
little beyond what is told us in the heading to his book. 
He is there said to be the great-great-grandson of one 
Hezekiah, by most supposed to be the eminent king of 
Judah, of that name. If so, he was of royal descent. 

As to date, the prophecy, according to the heading, 
belongs to the reign of Josiah, 641-610 B.c.; but 
whether to the earlier, the middle, or the last part 
of his reign is disputed. Josiah’s reign is usually di- 
vided into the ante-reform period, 641-630 B.c., the re- 
form period, 630-624 B.c., and the post-reform period, 
624 B.c. Kleinert gives strong reasons for the belief 
that the book belongs to the last of these periods. See 
Intro. in Lange. Keil accepts the second period; Bleek, 
the first. 


§ 2. Purpose of the Book.— It is a judgment hymn. 
It probably suggested the grand and sublime ‘“ Dies 
Ire.”” It is unlike many of the other prophetical books, 
in being a _ well-sustained, consecutive, impassioned 
course of thought, as if it were the sum-total of the 
prophet’s public sermons. It is also broader and more 
universal in its sweep than most of the others. It is 
a doomsday book for all nations. “If any one wishes 
all the secret oracles of the prophets to be given ina 
brief compendium, let him read through this brief 


ZEPHANIAH. 83 


Zephaniah,” (Bucer, 1528 a.p., quoted from Keil’s Com., 
p. 123.) Keil’s analysis in substance is as follows :— 
(1) A threat of judgment. Ch. I. 
(2) An exhortation to repentance. Chs. II.-III. 8. 
(3) A promise of salvation to Israel after the judg- 
ment. Ch. III. 9-20. 


§ 3. Contemporaries. — Those who study him for 
analogies of style find a special influence upon him by 
Isaiah, Micah, Joel, and Nahum; but he seems to have 
had only Jeremiah as an associate. 


LITERATURE. 


PRC OMMES ties) x: Vashi s/s op Seba Introduction by Kleinert. 
Commentary on the Minor Prophets . Keil. 


10. HAGGAI. 
Chapters, 2. 

§ 1. Author.— The name of this prophet is sup- 
posed to mean “The festive one,” or ‘‘Festive.” All 
we know of him pertains to his official position, Chs. 
Tox 3-121, 10, 20; and H2ra V.1s eV li Ae eee 
sages inform us that he began his work in the second 
year of Darius Hystaspes, 520 B.c., that his sermons 
cover a period of about four months, that they had to 
do chiefly with the building of the second temple, and 
that he was associated with Zechariah in urging on 
the enterprise, Zech. I. 1. Some think, relying on Ch. 
II. 2, that he was a native of Judea, and one of the 
Babylonian captives, but that is uncertain. If so, he 
would have been nearly seventy years old when he 
uttered these prophecies. He was the earliest of the 
prophets of the Restoration, preceding Zechariah about 
two months. 


§ 2. Aim of the Book, and Contents.— The pur- 
pose of these discourses is to encourage the people in 
the erection of the second temple. They are arranged 
chronologically, each discourse being dated (except Ch. 
I. 12-15), the whole bearing closely upon the main 
theme. Of course we have thus but a summary of his 
teachings. There are four if not five discourses. We 
may divide them into five as follows :— 

First Discourse. Reproof and warning to the people 
for allowing the temple to remain in ruins. Ch, I. I-11. 


HAGGAI. 85 


Second Discourse. A promise of the divine aid in 
their work. Ch. I. 12-15. 

Third Discourse. A stimulus to their weak faith, by 
the assurance that the new temple shall be filled with 
the Messianic glory. Ch. II. 1-9. 

Fourth Discourse. A reproof for their ceremonial 
irreligion and a promise of the divine blessing. Ch. II. 
10-12. 

Fifth Discourse. A promise that though the king- 
doms of the world should be destroyed, the throne of 
Israel should stand, Zerubbabel being God’s covenant 
representative. Ch. II. 20-23. 


§ 3. Messianic Prophecies. — In the wide sense; 2.2. 
the future of the Messianic kingdom. Chs. II. 6-9 and 
ee) 

Note. —J. F. McCurdy, in Lange, says: “It might 
be interesting to trace the relations subsisting between 
the several discourses of the prophets of the Restora- 
tion, which bear upon the Temple; eg. how Haggai 
assumes the identity of the Second Temple and the 
Church of Christ, while Zechariah (Ch. VI. 12-18) seems 
to contradict him by asserting that the Messiah would 
himself build the Temple of Jehovah, and Malachi 
resolves into full harmony these seeming discords of 
the prophetic lyre by predicting that Jehovah would 
come to his Temple, and purify the sons of Levi.” 
Mal. III. 1-3. 


§ 4. Style.—Its force is in its use of the interroga- 
tion. In other respects weak. Late Hebrew. 


86 LATER PROPHEITS. 


LITERATURE. 
‘¢ Messianic Prophecies”. . sie tog ope AU CLILZSULIaas 
‘¢ Traditions,” in Smith’s ay Dict. art. 
“ Haggai.” 
‘¢ Christology,” vol. 3, pp. 243-271 . . . Hengstenberg, E. W. 
‘¢ Scripture Testimony to the Messiah,” vol. 
TDP 20 3:80 siete io tke ist tonite ee 7 per oer 


11. ZECHARIAH. 
Chapters, 14. 

§ 1. Author and Date.—In Ch. I. 1, the prophet 
calls himself “the son of Berechiah, the son of Iddo, 
the prophet”; z.¢. the son of the former, and the grand- 
son of the latter. In Ezra V. 1 and VI. 14 he is called 
the son of Iddo. This apparent discrepancy may be 
accounted for by the hypothesis — 

(az) That the word “son” as used by Ezra signifies 
descendant, just as Laban is called the son of Nahor, 
though he was his grandson (Gen. XXIX. 5), and as 
Jehu in 2 Kings IX. 14 is called “the son of Jehoshaphat, 
the son of Nimshi,” and in verse 20 of the same chapter 
he is simply styled “the son of Nimshi” ; or 

(6) That his father died while he was young, and 
being a man of no special eminence, his name was 
omitted in the genealogical lists of Ezra, though fil- 
ially recognized by the prophet himself; or 

(c) That in the lists of Nehemiah and Ezra (Neh. 
XII. 1, 4-8) it was the priestly descent of Zechariah to 
which they specially referred, and hence they link him 
with a well-known Iddo, a prophet of priestly descent, 
rather than with a less-known Berechiah. If the third 
hypothesis be the true one, then Zechariah may be con- 
sidered a prophet by inspiration, and a priest by heredi- 
tary descent ; certainly suggestive, since, Messianically 
considered, his prophecies pertain to the Priest-King of 
human salvation. 


88 ZECHARIAH. 


As to the date of his prophecies (granting unity of 
authorship), the first eight chapters belong to the first 
four years of the reign of Darius Hystaspes, B.c. 521- 
517, but the remainder of the book is not dated. Zech. 
PCT 27 saa Lede 

Whether or not Chs. IX.—XIV. were composed by him 
later in life, or are a higher and more spiritual view of 
the leading thought in the first part of the book, z.e. res- 
toration and redemption, and were composed about the 
same time, or are the productions of other authors, must 
be decided by careful exegesis. 


§ 2. Unity of Authorship. 


(a) Tradition. — This is unanimous in its favor. The 
Sept. knows no other author. Christ and his apostles 
recognized but one author. The controversy concerning 
unity of authorship dates from Joseph Mede, in the 
seventeenth century (1653), and is based upon Matt. 
XXVII. 9, 10, quoting Zech. XI. 12, 13, as the language 
of Jeremiah. Hence this part of Zechariah must be 
Jeremiah’s. That theory is now given up, and Chs. [X.- 
XIV. have been put under the dissecting knife, dividing 
them into portions varying in date from 772 B.c. to 330 
B.c. See art. “Zech.,” Smith’s. Bib. Dict., a very candid 
article by Perowne, J. J. S. Also a more exhaustive 
discussion, to be read cautiously: “ Christology,” vol. 3, 
Hengstenberg, E. W. For full discussion pro and con, 
see Keil and Bleek. For a summary and clear view of 
the topic, see Lange, Chambers, T. W. Also “ Zecha- 
riah and his Prophecies,” Wright, C. H. H.; Bampton 
Lectures, 1879. Also “Com. for English Readers,” vol. 
5, preface by Lowe, W. H. 


LATER PROPHETS. 89 


(0) Style. — If variation of style is allowed for varia- 
tion of subject, there is little ground for a double or 
triple authorship. Compare with Zechariah, Ezekiel, 
Jeremiah, and Hosea for similar variations. See ‘‘ Minor 
Prophets,” pp. 509-511, Pusey, E. B. ‘Zechariah and 
His Prophecies,” Intro. § 7, p. 40, Wright, C. H. H. 

(c) Unity of Theme.—The Messianic thought per- 
vades the book, and like prophecy generally, expands 
and becomes more and more definite with the movement 
of the prophet’s mind and purpose. The thread of the 
Messianic thought in Zechariah is as follows : — 

1. Messiah as a Lowly Servant. Ch. III. 8. 

eeeviessiay as triest and King. Ch. VI: 12,13. 

3. Messiah as an afflicted, humiliated Monarch. Ch. 
LX 0; 10. 

4. Messiah betrayed and rejected. Ch. XI. 12, 13. 

5. Messiah slain. Ch. XIII. 1. 

6. Messiah slain by the Agency of Jehovah. Ch. 
ib. 7. 


§ 3. Difficulty. — Settling of authorship and arrange- 
ment of chapters. See ‘“ Zechariah,’ Lowe, W. H. 


LITERATURE. 


seeecnatial. sn lne Expositor, 86, -/s:.. we . .Dods, Marcys: 
SePeiresrOn ZeCUArIAN. sen onl s .0t 6.) tet), Alexander, W. LL. 


12, MALACHI. 
Chapters H Heb., 8 } Engy 4, 


§ 1. Author and Date.— So little is known of the 
author of this book, many have believed that the title 
was a symbolical designation, signifying “my messen- 
ger’’ or “ Jehovah's angel” or “messenger.” But that 
the name is significant of office proves nothing against 
the proper personality of the prophet any more than 
in the case of Obadiah, Hosea, Isaiah, or Elijah. 
The name does not appear elsewhere in the O. T. The 
early Christian Fathers accepted the opinion that the 
name was not a personal name, probably from the title 
of ‘the. book in ‘the Sept., vig: “By theshand tor gia 
Messenger.” 

The date of the prophecy is probably about 433 B.c. 
Bleek and Ewald put it earlier. The general opinion 
derived from the contents of the book, is, that Malachi 
was a contemporary with Nehemiah. This is inferred 
from the facts :— 

(a) That Malachi speaks of the Temple as having 
been built some time. Chs. I. 10; III. 1-10. 

(5) That the Jews are represented as complaining of 
civil affairs, implying such times after the Return as 
are described in Ezra and Nehemiah. 

(c) That he finds fault with heathen wives, as did Nehe- 
miah. Neh. XIII. 23-31; cf. Mal. II. 10, 11; and 

(Z) That he censures the withholding of tithes, as did 


MALACHI. QI 


Nehemiah. Mal. III. 8-19; cf. Neh. XIII. 10-12. All 
agree in considering him as the last of the prophets. 
“Malachi,” says a critic, “is like a late evening which 
brings a long day to a close; he is also the morning 
dawn which bears a glorious day in its womb.” 


§ 2. Course of Thought.— Assuming that we have 
in the book but one prophecy founded upon many 
prophetic oral teachings, the book may be divided into 
three parts. After an introduction portraying the love 
of Jehovah for his people (Ch. I. 1-6), — 

1. A portraiture of Jehovah’s fatherly disposition 
towards His covenant people, as a censure upon their 
irreverence (Ch. I. 6-10), and as the ground of impend- 
ing judgments upon their unfaithful priests. Chs. I. 
11-II. 9. 

2. A portraiture of Jehovah as the only God and 
Father, as a censure upon heathen marriages and unlaw- 
ful divorce. Ch. II. 10-16. 

3. A portraiture of Jehovah as the righteous and 
eternal judge of His people, as a censure upon hypo- 
critical worship, upon the complaint that God delays 
His punishment, and is unjust in His treatment of the 
good and bad; and as an assurance that He would sud- 
denly appear as the Judge of the ungodly, and as the 
Defender of His people, coming as He would in the 
spirit and power of an Elijah, who should introduce 
gaemecta™ prior to the grand assize. Chs. Il; 317; 
IV. (Eng.) 


§ 3. Style.— Conversational; suggestive of the be- 
lief that it is almost a facsimile of the prophet’s oral 


Q2 LATER PROPHETS. 


instructions. It is broken up into Socratic aphorisms, 
abounds in ellipses, is crisp and terse, rendering it dif- 
ficult to decide whether the book is one continuous 
prophecy or the condensed compilation of several 
prophecies. 


LITERATURE. 
On the Name of the Prophet : — 


‘Christology of the O. T,” vol. 4, pp. yank 
LOIG oie etc ; Hengstenberg, E. W. 
Also, 
‘© Minor Propliets) \.\%., So 00.01. s eee Rel tceeee 
Introd. to Malachi, vol. 2. Ditto . . . Henderson, E. 
Also, Appendix to art. 
‘© Malachi,” in Smith’s Bib, Dict. ..0)) 5s e,  EAC KEL eee 
‘¢ Prophets of the Reformation” . . Moore, T. V. 
For Messianic passage (Ch. III.) see ‘‘ Messianic Prophecy,” 
Briggs, Co A.,-p. 472. 


Vote. — Mal. I. 11 is the well-known proof-text for the Mass. 


Deh tot AG LOG RAP ETAT 


anaes tee: aed 


As early as the prologue to Ecclesiasticus (about 
130 B.C.) a distinction is found in the books of the 
O. T., grouping them as the Law, the Prophets, and 
“the other books of our fathers,” or, ‘the rest of the 
books,” or ‘the others that have followed their steps.” 
These other books are evidently the remainder of the 
books belonging to some recognized canon. They are 
termed in the Hebrew Text vaguely, “ K’thubim,” “writ- 
wngs,’ or “books.” The literal translation of this term 
would be ypadeta, and early in the Christian era they 
were termed aytoypada ; 2.e. “sacred writings.” 

The arrangement of this group varies. All the Mss. 
of the Sept. (Bleek) place Daniel as the fourth of the 
major prophets; Ruth next to Judges; and Lamenta- 
tions as an appendix to Jeremiah. Bleek for substance 
says, “that it was not before the second century that the 
Jews placed Ruth and Lamentations with the Megilloth, 
and that for special reasons connected with synagogue 
service.” ‘In other respects there is no doubt that 
the arrangement of the books of the Hebrew Canon is 
the earlier and original one; and that of the Sept. later, 
made to suit the contents of the books.” See art. 
“Canon” in Smith’s Bib. Dict. and Encyclopedia Bri- 
tannica. 


94 THE HAGIOGRAPHA. 


These books are arranged in the Hebrew Bible, as 
follows :— 

(2) THE PsALMs, PROVERBS, AND Jos, regarded by 
the Jews as highly poetical, and distinguished by the | 
Massorites by a peculiar accentuation. 

(6) THE Sone oF Sones, RutTu, LAMENTATIONS, 
EcCCLESIASTES, ESTHER, called “The Five Rolls,” and 
publicly read in the synagogues on certain feast days 
by the later Jews. 

(c) DanieL, Ezra, NEHEMIAH, CHRONICLES, 





1. PSALMS. 
Psalms, 150, 


§ 1. Title.— The designation for these lyrics is un- 
known. In the Hebrew Scriptures they are called 
msm, “Praises,” or ODM ABD, “Book of 
Praises.’ In the Sept. the word rarpol, or Psalms, is 
used as a translation of a Hebrew word signifying 
“song accompanied with music,” “lyric poems.” But 
this Hebrew word is never used in the plural in the 
O. T., and seems to be applied chiefly to such psalms 
as were arranged for musical accompaniments. The 
term -“ Psalter,’ from a Greek word signifying “a 
stringed instrument,” is used as the word “ Lyre” for a 
collection of lyric poems. In the New Testament, this 
Psalter is simply called “The Book of Psalms” (Luke 
XX. 42; Acts I. 20), a title adopted by the Vulgate from 
the Sept., which became usage in the Christian Church. 
“The verb ‘to praise,’”’ says Delitzsch, “includes both 


PSALMS. 95 


the ‘Magnificat’ and the ‘De Profundis.’” Herder 
calls the Psalms “the hymn-book for all times.” 


§ 2. The Psalms as a Compilation. — In the canon 
of the O. T., the Psalms are reckoned as one book 
of the Hagiographa, and are so referred to by Christ 
and his apostles; but in the Hebrew Bible they are 
divided into five books, the close of each of the first 
four being indicated by a doxology. These books are 
divided thus :— 


Book 1, Psalms I.—X LI. 

Book 2, Psalms XLII.-LX XII. 
Book 3, Psalms LX XIII.-LXXXIX. 
Book 4, Psalms XC.-CVI. 

Book 5, Psalms CVII.-CL. 


When and by whom this division was made is un- 
certain. 


§ 3. Authors and Date.—If we are to be guided 
by the superscriptions, Book First might be termed 
Davidic; Book Second, both Levitic and Davidic, com- 
piled perhaps in the reign of Hezekiah; Book Third, 
Levitic, probably compiled in the reign of Josiah; and 
Books Fourth and Fifth, containing seventeen bearing 
David’s name, and many anonymous psalms, probably 
belonging to the time of Nehemiah and Ezra. All of 
these books, however, seem to be crossed by hymns in- 
serted according to the plan of the compiler or compilers. 
Each psalm must be tested by its contents as to author- 
ship and date. 


Ooh THE HAGIOGRAPHA. 


§ 4. Superscriptions.— These are of three kinds: 
those which mark their musical character, those which 
explain the origin of a given psalm, and those which 
assign the psalms to particular authors. They have 
the authority of tradition. They bear the marks of 
antiquity in their obscurity and enigmatical character. 
Probably some of them were prefixed by the composer. 
Many were placed there by the compilers. Several are 
evidently of late date. In their authority they are 
analogous to the subscriptions to the books of the New 
Testament. It is impossible to decide in all cases what 
they mean, but it is not correct to say, as is often said, — 
that as a general fact they contradict the apparent 
meaning of the contents of such psalms. 





§ 5. Specialties in the Psalms.— (a) The type of 
their poetry. They are religious lyrics set to music, 
and designed chiefly for the services of the Temple. 
The epic element and the dramatic element are not to 
be found in them. The Psalter is the Jewish Psalmody, 
the poetic expression of a pious heart in its effort to 
worship God. 

(2) The form of their poetry. Except by a few critics, 
all efforts to arrange the laws of Hebrew in harmony 
with those of the Greek as to quantity and accentuation 
have been deemed failures. There is a measured move- 
ment technically called “the parallelism of members,” 
and these parallelisms may be arranged in three classes, 
viz.: “Synonymous Parallelisms,’’ where the members 
express the same, or nearly the same thought, though 
in different words, ¢g. Ps. I. 2; VIII. 5 3) Soviets 
Parallelisms,” where the construction of the sentence is 


PSALMS. Q7 


similar, but with more or less variation in thought, e.g. 
Ps. XIX. 7-10; and “ Antithetic Parallelisms,’ where 
the correspondence consists in opposition to or contrast 
with the previous sentiment, e.g. Ps. 1.6; XX. 8. This 
class is found chiefly in the Book of Proverbs. 

(c) Peculiar structure of some of the Psalms. Under 
this head come the acrostic or alphabetical form, e.g. Ps. 
ey ee IV KOON ITS CXL CX; CXLV,) othe 
gradational form, where the last expression in each par- 
allelism is repeated in the first member of the following 
one, e.g. Ps. CX XI. and CX XIV. ; and the choral form, 
to be sung by alternate choirs; ¢.g¢. Ps. XXIV., CXV., 
CXXXV. These are minor matters, but they aid in 
catching the spirit of the authors of the Psalms. 


LITERATURE, 

‘Introductions to the Psalms,” vol.2 . . . Thrupp, F. J. 
Penne of salms D. 12.2) 2 “2. “Smith's, Bib. Dic 
UY et ee asityr «fis yey), « Tigges, CA: 
‘‘Messianic Prophecy”. . . pes ta set ious, Ca A. 
‘Origin and Growth of the intnee a eae Murray, T. C. 
‘“*The Psalms: their ea Teachings, Piri 

See os Binnie, W. 
‘¢The Psalter a Witness to ee Dain Oreit 

Ontne Bible?) sce, * ty at = Chambers. PW 
“‘The Psalms a Witness to Christ. i Bernier 

Peer nO ene cele eels . kyrian urd ALIOXANCOY. 2 Wee 


Bib. Sac. vol. 5. 

North Am. Rev. vols. 31, 35, 63. 

Sears of the Bible” .+ .-- Bi kee on), os Gn flan. 6G 
‘‘ The Psalmist and the Scientist” PP ae Geral aa Vl abnesOnie Gr) 


Coms., Delitzsch, F., ed. °88; Perowne, J. J. S.,ed. 4; Jennings 
& Lowe, Alexander, J. A., Cheyne, T. K. 


2. PROVERBS. 
Chapters, 31, 


§ 1. Title.— This book is so called from the intro- 
ductory Hebrew word or words, ‘“ Wishle Shlomo,” 
“Proverbs” or “ Proverbs of Solomon.” The Hebrew 
word has for its ground meaning the idea of similitude, 
comparison, and is used in the Scriptures with a variety 
of significations. It is used for pithy sayings which 
pass into popular proverbs, for purposes of mockery, 
Micah II..4; Hab. I1..6; for the parable, 1 Sami egres 
for sententious maxims or aphorisms, Prov. I. 1 sq., and 
Ece. XII. 9; and also for longer parabolic illustrations, 
Num. XXIII. 7-10 sq. 

Note. — This variety of use suggests caution as to 
the limitation of the meaning of the word for critical 
purposes, by those who theorize as to the unity of the 
Book of Proverbs, and find thereby a variety of authors 
even in small portions of it. Parts of the book are 
- composed of separate maxims. Other parts contain full 
similitudes, or complete descriptions of a germinant 
moral principle, or a portraiture of character. 


§ 2. Author. — By the superscriptions (Chs. I. 1; X. 
1; XXV. 1), the authorship of these portions is ascribed 
to “Solomon, the son of David, King of Israel.” The 
last two chapters are assigned to other authors; who, 
is unknown. Ch. XXIV. 23-34 is ascribed to a class of 


PROVERBS. 99 


unknown wise men. Chs. XXV.-—XXIX. are stated to 
be “the Proverbs of Solomon which the men of Heze- 
kiah, king of Judah, copied out.” Solomon, therefore, 
was not the author of the whole book, neither was it 
compiled as a whole in his day. According to its own 
testimony it is a compilation completed not before the 
reign of Hezekiah, 727-697 B.c. This work of the 
collectors presupposes some existing book to which 
they attached a supplement. Who wrote the appendi- 
ces (Chs. XXX.—XXXI.), and whether they are a later 
addition, cannot be determined. On account of this 
diversity of authorship, indicated by the book itself, the 
arrangement of the book has taxed the skill of the 
critics, no two of whom seem to agree. Nearly all, 
however, admit that the norm of the book (Chs. X. 
I-X XII. 16), is unquestionably Solomon’s. Wright, 
W. A., in Smith’s Bib. Dict., sums up the controversy 
thus: “It appears from a consideration cf the whole 
question of the manner in which the Book of Proverbs 
arrived at its present shape, that the nucleus of the 
whole was the collection of Solomon’s Proverbs in Chs. 
X. I-X XII. 16; that to this was added the further col- 
lection made by the learned men of the court of Heze- 
kiah, Chs. XXV.-XXIX.; that these two were put 
together and united with Chs. XXII. 17—-XXIV., and 
that to this as a whole the introduction, Chs. I.-IX., 
was affixed (szc); but whether it was compiled by the 
same writer who added Chs. XXII. 16-X XIV. cannot 
be determined. Nor is it possible to assert that this 
same compiler may not have added the concluding 
chapters of the book to his previous collection.” As 


I0O THE HAGIOGRAPHA. 


to the date of the final addition, few agree. Seemingly, 
the reign of Hezekiah is the earliest terminus a quo. 

Note 1.— For the learning of Solomon, and the proba- 
ble source of the collection by the learned men of Heze- 
_ kiah’s court, see 1 Kings IV. 29-34. 

Note 2.— There is a Jewish tradition that Solomon 
composed “The Song of Songs” in his youth, “The 
Proverbs” in his mature manhood, and “ Ecclesiastes ” 
in his old age. The grounds of such a distinction are 
evident. 

Note 3.—For a list of quotations in N. T., see 
Introductions. 

Note 4. —For the variations in the Sept., see Lange, 
Intra, '$' 13: 


§ 3. General Analysis.—1. General Introduction. 
Ch. I. 1-6. ; 

2. Wisdom, as the chief good, commended to youth. 
Chs. I. 7-IX. 

3. Sundry maxims, precepts, and admonitions per- 
taining to human life. Chs. X.—XXII. 16. 

4. Additions of a similar character by the so-called 
wise men. Chs. XXII. 17-X XIV. 34. 

5. Gleanings by the men of Hezekiah pertaining to 
kings and their subjects. Chs. XXV.-XXIX. 

6. Two supplements. Chs. XXX.-XXXI. (a) The 
words of Agur. Ch. XXX. (4) The words of Lemuel, 
and the poem in praise of a wise, capable woman. Ch. 
RAL: 

For a minute analysis, see Lange, Zockler, O., and 
appendix to Proverbs in Smith’s Bib. Dict., Conant, 
Lead 


PROVERBS. IOI 





§ 4. Difficulty.—Is Wisdom in Ch. VIII. to be 
understood as poetic drapery; z.e. a personification of 
one of Jehovah’s attributes, or is it an adumbration of 
the hypostatic person of the Logos? For the latter view, 
see Bib. Sac. vol. 15. For the former, Com., Delitzsch, 
Introd. | 

I prefer the view that we have here an impersonation 
of a divine principle as a law of the universe to which 
all creation is subject. So Conant, T. J. 


LITERATURE, 


Besides usual Coms., see Stuart, M., and Conant, T. J. Practi- 
cal, see ‘‘ Laws from Heaven for Life on Earth,” Arnot, W.; Lec- 
tures, Wardlaw, R., 3 vols. ‘* Solomon and Job,” Cheyne, T. K.; 
‘¢ Solomon: his Life and Times,” Farrar, F. W. 


3. JOB. 
Chapters, 42. 

§ 1. Title.— The title by which this book has always 
been designated is taken from its principal hero. If 
the name is derived from a Hebrew root, as with most 
critics, it seems to signify ‘The assailed, or persecuted 
one,” Ex. XXITI.22; if: from. an Arabicerogtwads 
with many, “The repenting one.” See Lange, Zéck- 


ler, O. 


§ 2. Authorship.— Opinions vary and are conjec- 
tural or hypothetical. The book itself is silent. Some, 
Job himself; others, Moses; Canon Cook; others, an 
unknown writer of the time of Solomon; Delitzsch, 
etc. ; others, a writer in the exile period; Bleek, David- 
son, etc. Few seek a later authorship than the exile 
period, on account of Ezek. XIV. 14-20. 

[nu favor of Moses are — 

(z) The tradition of the Jews and some of the early 
Christian writers. Origen, Jerome. 

(0) The plausibility that Moses in Midian would be 
wont to meditate upon the theme of the book, the 
mysteries of human suffering. 

(c) That he was equal to the task as well versed in 
Egyptian learning, with which the book teems, and with 
the natural history of Egypt, with which the book is 
familiar. 


JOB. 103 


(7) That the name for the Deity in the prosaic por- 
tion being Jehovah, and in the dialogues, for the most 
part, Eloah, indicates Hebrew authorship, a name with 
which Moses was familiar. 

(c) That its un-Jewish tone, z.e. absence of reference 
to the Mosaic law, temple, priesthood, sacrifices (except 
patriarchal), points to a date previous to the time of 
Moses as the Hebrew lawgiver. 

Ln favor of some writer of the Solomonic period are — 

(2) The artistic structure and philosophical tone of 
the book, which presuppose a higher training in com- 
position and speculation than in the Mosaic period. 

(5) The Aramaisms or Arabisms in the language of 
Job’s friends, which indicate such contact with neigh- 
boring nations as existed in the Solomonic period. 

(c) Allusions to the Mosaic Law; eg. Ch. V. 14 and 
Deut. XXVIII. 290-XXXI. 11 and Lev. XVIII. 17 and 
es Dd 

(2) The idea of Sheol, or the invisible world, harmo- 
nizes with the Psalms of David. 

In favor of the extle period are the views already con- 
sidered in favor of the Solomonic period, together with 
the theory that the poem was designed as a source of 
comfort to the Jews in captivity, and is to be inter- 
preted as is the idea of the Servant of Jehovah in Isa. 
XL.-LXVI. by these critics. The linguistic argument 
is drawn from the analogy of language. See Isaiah, vol. 
2, Essay 9, Cheyne, T. K. 

Note. — The passage in Ezek. already referred to 
seems to be a terminus ad quem for authorship, whether 
the term “Job” be used historically or ideally. 

Tn favor of the Ezraic or \ater period, the chief argu- 


104. THE HAGIOGRAPHA. 


ment is the colloquy between Jehovah and Satan, the 
idea of a personal Satan being claimed as of Persian 
origin. 

Note. — The age of the book of course must synchro- 
nize with its authorship. 


§ §. The Class of Poetry to which the Book be- 
longs. — It has been called an epic, a drama, a tragedy, 
a didactic poem. For the epic there are few, if any, 
reasons. It has some of the elements of the drama, viz., 
dialogue, something of a plot with a solution. The happy 
conclusion antagonizes the conception of a tragedy. Its 
didactic purpose is everywhere apparent. 


§ 4. Is the book historical, or the poetic conception 
of the author? Three views have been advocated. 

1. Pure history, in the narrative and poetical portions. 

2. Unhistorical in all its parts; the poet’s creation. 

3. An historical tradition of a real sufferer like Job, 
or of Job himself, adopted by the writer and worked up 
for his didactic purposes. 

For the first, are the supposed views of Josephus and 
some Rabbins, and of most Christian writers until the 
Reformation. This view is now generally abandoned. 
It is too literal. es 

For the second, though held by critics so unlike as 
Hengstenberg and Reuss, there are few supporters. 

The third is the more generally accepted opinion. 

Davidson, A. B., in Com., sums up the objections to 
the historical view substantially as follows: “That the 
book is not literal history appears — 

“(1) From the scenes in heaven exhibited in the pro- 


JOB. 105 


logue (Chs. I., II.), and from the lengthy speeches put 
into the mouth of the Almighty, Ch. XX XVIII. sq. 

‘‘(2) From the symbolical numbers, three and seven, 
used to describe Job’s flocks and his children ; and from 
the fact that his possessions are exactly doubled to him 
on his restoration, while he receives again seven sons 
and three daughters, precisely as before. 

“‘(3) From the dramatic and ideal nature of the ac- 
count of Job’s calamities (Ch. I. 13 sq.), where the forces 
of nature and the violence of men alternate in bringing 
ruin upon him, and in case of each only one escapes to 
tell the tidings. 

“(4) From the nature of the debate between Job and 
his friends.” Too artistic; could not be merely extem- 
poraneous utterances. 


§ 5. The Teaching of the Book.— Prof. W. H. 
Green, in “ The Book of Job Unfolded,” gives this as 
the result of special study. 

Subject, “The rectitude of the Divine Government 
when the righteous are specially afflicted. 

“1. Special suffering implies special guilt. — Friends. 

“2. Special suffering may imply God’s benevolent 
purpose towards the sufferer. — Elihu. 

“3, Special suffering is designed to beget uncondi- 
tional submission to the wise government of an All-Wise 
God. — God.” 

This is an analysis according to the main contents of 
the book. For an exhaustive one, see Lange, Zockler, 
O. For a summary, see Bleek, Intro. For the best, 
perhaps, unless too Christian, see Revised Eng. Script., 
Sonant, 1: J. 


106 THE HAGIOGRAPHA. 





§ 6. Difficulties. — These are very ably discussed in 


Lange by Zockler, O. 


LITERATURE. 
See Lange, Zockler, O. 
Cambridge arias: es teria ra ert set pas Ree 
‘“ Biblical Studies” . . ae oe ite et kOe CHEE 
“Short Studies on Great Subjects” us ett! 65 SSOUCE ees 
Bib. Sac. vol. Io ting 08 0 26) see ne “ede” DATO Meee 
“The Expositor,” August, 188 <i vee ke 06 4’ > 6 ple Atk AUtRO a mens 


4. CANTICLES; OR, THE SONG OF SONGS. 
Chapters, 3, 


§ 1. Canonicity.— This depends upon the facts that 
it is found in the Sept., in the translations of Aquila, 
Symmachus, and Theodotion, in the catalogues of Melito 
and others, and the general testimony of the early syna- 
gogue and the Christian Church. In the Mishna it is 
said, “to pollute! the hands”; ze. to be canonical. 
See “Solomon’s Songs,” Kitto’s Cyclopedia, Ginsburg, 
Cr). 


§ 2. Title.—In the Hebrew Text it is called “The 
Song of Songs”’; z.e, “the most beautiful of songs,” and 
the fuller statement, “The Song of Songs which is 
Solomon’s,” not as some, “the most beautiful song of 
Solomon,” but the most beautiful of songs, whose author 
is Solomon. The comparison is not of one among many, 
but of one as supremely excellent, like the phrase, 
“ Holy of holies,” etc. 

Authorship and Date.—If we credit the super- 
scription whether placed there by the author or by the 
compiler, the book is Solomon’s, but the date would be 
conjectural; ze. whether it was composed in his youth, 
manhood, or old age. As a general fact the Solomonic 
authorship of the book was admitted until near the 
close of the last century. Modern criticism, much of 


1See 810 in Meuerhebraische und Chaldaische Worterbuch, Levy, J. 


108 THE HAGIOGRAPHA. 


it, rejects the authority of the titles to the psalms, and 
the prophetical books, and this poem, relying chiefly 
upon the internal evidence of the book itself as sustain- 
ing or rejecting the truthfulness of the title. 

In favor of Solomon are — 

(2) The manifest knowledge of the author, exemplify- 
ing minutely what is said of Solomon in 1 Kings IV. 33. 

(0) The manifold evidence that the book describes a 
state of royalty in the highest stage of commercial pros- 
perity, as was singularly true of the reign of Solomon. 

(c) The indications that the territorial boundaries of 
the kingdom were such as they were during Solomon’s 
reion alone. See.Chs. I-35 3 lio seni one eee 
i Re OB Bees DD, Gas NB 

Of course these facts might be portrayed by another 
than Solomon, but the exuberance of such knowledge 
harmonizes with Solomonic authorship. 

(7d) Even many of the Aramaisms, real or supposed, 
which are strongly relied upon for late authorship ; e.g. 
the Persian period, are found in the Song of Deborah, in 
Job and Amos, and may be accounted for by Solomon’s 
familiarity with them, and in a few instances, perhaps, 
may be a copyist’s error. 


§ 3. Unity of the Book. — As to the actual unity of 
the poem, with a plot and well-defined characters, the 
diversity of opinions and the hypotheses employed to 
solve difficulties render a satisfactory conclusion impos- 
sible. See Lange, Zockler, Introd., with marginal notes, 
pp. 8-11. Very few agree as to the number of charac- 
ters represented in the poem, and when they do agree, 
the portions of the poem assigned to each differ. The 


CANTICLES. 109 


transitions are so abrupt as to require the author’s eye 
to detect them. The main question, however, which 
has its bearing on the method adopted for the interpre- 
tation of the poem, is whether the loved one in the 
poem is the object of passion by two lovers, a king and 
a shepherd, or by one only, and that one the king. 

Those who hold to two lovers are well represented 
by Ginsburg, who divides the song into five sections, 
marked by certain recurring expressions. 

“1, The Shulamite is in the royal tent, expressing 
her desire for the shepherd, and unmoved by the king’s 
mavances. Chs.J,-2-IT: 7. 

“2. She relates to the court ladies the cruelty of her 
brothers, which had led to the separation between her- 
self and her beloved. Chs. II. 8-III. 5. 

“3. The entry of the royal train into Jerusalem. The 
shepherd follows his betrothed into the city, and pro- 
poses to rescue her. Some of her court companions 
are favorably impressed by her constancy. Chs. III. 6- 
Ase & 

“4. The shepherdess tells her dream, and still further 
engages the sympathies of her companions. The king’s 
flatteries and promises are unavailing. Chs. V. 2-VIII. 
4.” (Quoted from art. “Canticles,’ Smith’s Bib. Dict.) 

The lesson of the song, according to this scheme, is 
the power of genuine love to resist strong temptation. 
Inferentially it endorses the Scripture law of marriage, 
Gen. II. 24. But does not the scheme read a theory 
into the poem? Would Solomon, or another in his 
name, write such an accusation against himself? If so, 
and interpreted literally, the poem would carry with it a 
healthy tone. 


110 THE HAGIOGRAPHA. 


Zockler divides the poem in the same way with this 
result : — 

1. The first meeting of the lovers at the royal palace 
ms(orsmeéar), [erusalem a eC hs 1 ol Ta, 

2. The first meeting of the lovers, as related by 
Shulamith, who has returned home. Chs. II. 8—-IIlI. 5. 

3. The solemn bringing of the bride, and the mar- 
riage at Jerusalem. Chs. III. 6-V. 1. 

4. Shulamith’s longing for her home reawakeized. 
Chs.. V..2-VILI4. 

5. The return home, and the triumph of the chaste 
love of the wife over the unchaste feelings of her hus- 
band. Ch. VIII. 5-14. 

Lesson. The pure love of a rustic maiden wins the 
heart of a polygamous king to monogamy. 

This scheme seems to read a theory between the 
lines, yet the moral is a good one. To spiritualize it 
and represent Christ as purified by his Church seems 
monstrous, and certainly anti-scriptural. 

The view of Keil, substantially that of Delitzsch, 
Bleek, Green, and others, seeks unity in this way :— 

1. The longings of mutual love. Chas. I. 2-II. 7. 

2. The lovers seeking and finding each other. Chs. 
II. 8-III. 5. 

2.olLhe nuptials hs. <0 Gave are 

4. The separation and reunion. Chs. V. 2-VI. 9. 

5. The praises of the lovers. Chs. VI. 10-VIII. 4. 

6. The confirmation of the covenant of love, leading 
to inviolable fidelity. Ch. VIII. 5-14. 

If this view can be maintained, then the poem might 
be deemed a lesson in wedded love, which in the O. T. 
is used as the symbol of the love of Jehovah for his 


CANTICLES. IIl 


people, and in the New, the love of Christ for his 
Church. The view is scriptural; will the poem bear 
such an explanation of the divisions? 


§ 4. Methods of Interpretation.— Ingenuity has 
done its best, and each critic has surpassed his predeces- 
sor by his skill, but all the methods may be reduced to 
three: Zhe Allegorical, The Literal, The Typical. | 

1. Lhe Allegorical. — This view confutes itself by its 
monstrosities. The prime requirement is a vivid imag- 
ination. One may find in it a “history of Israel from 
the Exodus until his final redemption,” with all the 
particulars of that history, as does the Targum on 
Cant. Another, in the phrase “the kiss of his mouth,” 
finds the union of the Creator with the creature. 
Others, in the bride, the individual souls of Christians, 
or the Church as a collective body. Others allegorize 
the cheeks of the bride as “good works,” her neck, 
“the love of Christ,’ and her golden chains, “ faith,” 
etc. Others suppose the bride to represent the Ten 
Tribes, the bridegroom Hezekiah, and Shulamith’s 
brothers a party in the house of Judah. Others find 
all the details in the life of Christ. 

2. The Literal.—This has much to commend it. If 
Solomon is the author, it would present him as a peni- 
tent and an endorser of the divine law of marriage. If 
written by another, its representation would be to the 
same effect. But in this theory the bride must be an 
Israelitish maiden, not an Egyptian princess. 

3. Lhe Typical.—If unity of thought can be pre- 
served, this view helps to account for the introduction 
of the poem into the Canon. Solomon, though a very 


I1I2 THE HAGIOGRAPHA. 


imperfect man, might, as husband, here ideally repre. 
sented, be the type of the Spotless Husband of the 


Church. 


§ 5. Difficulties. 





LITERATURE. 


Lange. 
‘« Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews” . 
«« The Spirit of the Heb. Poetry” . 
«The Spirit of the Heb. Poetry”. 
Translation, with notes . : 
Patristic . DO at nae ae 
‘¢ Scriptural Testimony to the Messiah” 
Art. ‘* Canticles,” in Kitto 

A thesaurus of opinions. 
Andover Rev. ’85, art. by 
Monthly Inter. Oct. 86. 


Many and unsolvable. 


Lowth, R. 
Taylor, I. 
Herder, jovGss 
Noyes, Gi; 
Theodoret. 
Smith, Pye, R. 
Ginsburg, C. D. 


Clarke, W. B. 


5. RUTH. 
Chapters, 4, 

§ 1. Its Place in the Canon.— The Hebrew Bible 
locates this book as the fifth in the Hagiographa, but 
the Sept. places it next to Judges. It also places 
Daniel as the fourth of the major prophets, and Lamen- 
tations next to Jeremiah. As already said, the change 
was made not earlier than the second century A.D., and 
probably for synagogue services. 


§ 2. Its Canonicity.— This rests upon the same 
grounds as the other Hagiographa. Aside from the 
moral teaching of the book, the last verses, which give 
the genealogy of David, not elsewhere so explicitly 
given, and so important in the genealogy of the Mes- 
siah, make it a necessary link in the history of the 
covenant people. Otherwise, except as an exquisite 
pastoral, its claims would be slight. As confirming the 
genealogical value of the book, it is noticeable that the 
Books of Samuel are silent as to the descent of David 
from Ruth, that the Chronicles, though they mention 
Boaz as one of his ancestors, say nothing of Ruth, 
(1 Chron. II. 11, 12), and yet Matthew inserts her name 
in his genealogical tables, Matt. I. 3-6. 

Query. —Is the genealogy in Ruth and Matthew 
exact, or are the chief persons in the line of descent 
the ones mentioned? See ‘Book of Ruth in Hebrew 
ene Chaldee,” Wright, C. Hy H: 


I1l4 THE HAGIOGRAPHA. 


§ 3. Author and Date.— The author is unknown. 
One of the Jewish traditions gives the name of Samuel 
as the author; a mere conjecture. The title to the 
book of course is merely the name of the central char- 
acter. As to date, unless the last verses are an ap- 
pendix, by another hand, the book could not have been 
written prior to the birth of David and not very likely 
before the close of his reign, when he had secured his 
position as the typical king. To show that it was of 
much later date, it is affirmed — 

(a) That “the plucking off the shoe”’ (Ch. IV. 7, 8) 
had become obsolete when the book was written, which 
was doubtless true in the commercial changes of the 
monarchy, and the author states the fact. 

(0) That it contains Aramaisms. True; but they are 
put into the mouth of foreigners, and are not found as 
a rule in the language of the author. 

(c) That it recognizes the custom of foreign marriages, 
z.e. that they were not strongly forbidden until the time 
of Ezra (Ezra IX. 1 sq.), and therefore the book must be 
of exilic date. This argument is of little weight. They 
did not first become unlawful in the times of Ezra and 
Nehemiah. They were contrary to the Mosaic law, 
Deut. VIIv: 1-4; XXIII: 3-6. And the factwime. 
the marriage of Boaz with Ruth is not censured is 
merely in accordance with the usage of the Scriptural 
writers to give the facts just as they were. The ge- 
nealogy at the close throws the only light we have upon 
the date of the book. That would imply a date soon 
after if not during David's age. 


§ 4. Design of the Book. — Critics differ — 


RUTH. 115 


(a2) That it was intended to enforce by illustration the 
Levirate Law of marriage according to Gen. XX XVIII. 
8 and Deut. XXV. 5 sq.; improbable. Boaz was but 
a remote kinsman, and his action was not required by 
the Mosaic Law. 

(2) That it is a beautiful family picture enforcing the 
duty of a man to marry his kinswoman. 

(c) That it is “a book of praise of true love and 
virtue ; a book of reconciliation for those alien nations 
who betake themselves under the wings of the living 
God. In Boaz and Ruth, Israel and the Gentiles are, 
as it were, personified. In order to come under the 
wings of Israel, nothing is needed but the love and 
faith of Ruth.” Lange, Intro., Cassel, P. 

(7) The care of Divine Providence for those who sin- 
cerely love God. The last fills out the facts of the story. 


§ 5. Contents.— 1. The account concerning Naomi 
from her departure from Canaan into Moab, and her 
return into the land of Israel. Ch. I. 

2. The interview of Boaz and Ruth, and their mar- 
tye, 2Chs, ITL—1V. i12. 

3. The birth of Obed, the son of Boaz by Ruth, from 
whom David was descended. Ch. IV. 13-18. 





§ 6. Difficulties. — The chronology of the conclud- 
ing verses. 
The exact period in which the scene is laid. 


LITERATURE. 


‘¢ The History of the Jewish Church” . . . . . Stanley, A. P, 
MMC HISIAN Doak he eo ta Se Mall whe ya VOL de bbe 


6. LAMENTATIONS. 
Chapters, 5. 
§ 1. Title.— This book is so called from its first 
Hebrew word ;72°§, signifying “how!” an exclama- 


tion of grief. The Rabbins call it P1359, dirges, ele- 


gies, lamentations. The Sept. translates this word 
Oonvoi, and the Vulgate Zhrenz, larnentations, a word 
fitly expressing the main thoughts of the book. 


§ 2. Its Place in the Canon.--In the Hebrew 
Canon this book is the sixth of the Hagiographa. 
The Sept. and the Vulgate place it immediately after 
the prophecies of Jeremiah. Bleek thinks that it be- 
longed there in the earliest Hebrew Canon. ‘The enu-: 
meration of the books by Josephus, contra Apion, I, 8, 
Melito, Eusebius, 4, 26, and Jerome, presupposes such a 
connection. See Lange, Intro., Nagelsbach, C. W. E. 


§ 3. Author and Date. — Tradition and the general 
consent of critics agree that the book was the work 
of the well-known prophet Jeremiah. They derive this 
view from the harmony between his prophecies and 
these elegies, in spirit, purport, analogies of language 
(see Keil), and what the poet says of himself. See Ch. 
II. 52 sq. and Jer. XXXVIII. 6 sq. Bleek sayauee 
may be assumed as certain.”” Ewald deems it the work 
of Baruch or one of Jeremiah’s disciples. Nagelsbach 
surrenders his earlier opinion that the book was com- 


LAMENTATIONS. L17 


posed by Jeremiah, but thinks it was a product of his 
age. See Introd. His reasoning is acute and learned, 
but not conclusive. The book itself is silent, nor is it 
quoted in the N. T. as Jeremiah’s. Yet the analogies 
of language are very strong in behalf of the tradi- 
tion. 

The tradition probably rests upon the superscription 
of the Sept., which reads thus: ‘“ And it came to pass 
after Israel had been carried away captive, and Jeru- 
salem was become desolate, that Jeremiah sat weeping, 
and lamented with this lamentation over Jerusalem, 
and said.” Whether this superscription ever belonged 
to the Hebrew text or not, its testimony is worthy of 
consideration. 

As to Date. — Bleek fixes it very minutely. He says, 
“T believe that we may assume with great probability 
that the songs were composed ... in the interval 
between the surrender of the city and its destruction, 
during which time Jeremiah remained in Jerusalem.” 
Jer. XXXIX. 14. We simply do not know. We need 
not take for granted that all these elegies were com- 
posed at the same time. There is a very general, but 
not a very close, unity between them, and this may arise 
from the fact that they were not all composed at the 
same time. 

§ 4. Subject.— Lamentations over the destruction 
of Judah and Jerusalem by the Chaldeans. The opin- 
ion that refers them to the death of Josiah, grounded 
on the statement in 2 Chron. XXXV. 25, is not well 
supported, though adopted by Josephus, Ant. 10, 5, I, 
and others. The contents of these elegies are opposed 


118 THE HAGIOGRAPHA. 


to it. As Bleek says: “The songs spoken of by him” 
(z.e. the Chronicler) “were some of Jeremiah’s, which 
like so many of the works quoted in the Chronicles, 
were not admitted into the Canon, and have therefore 
been lost.” 


§ 5. Contents. — Summarily, the first two chapters 
and the last two record the misery which had befallen 
Judah and Jerusalem, and the middle one refers to the 
author’s personal sufferings. 


§ 6. Structure. — Uniquely artistic. In the He- 
brew text, Chs. L., II., and IV. contain 22 verses each, 
the number of letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Ch. 
III. has 66 verses, but so arranged that the initial letter 
is three times repeated, so as to give substantially 22 
verses. Ch. V. contains 22 verses, but no alphabetical 
order. 


§ 7. The Relation of the Book to the Prophecies 
of Jeremiah. — It is evidently their supplement. The 
prophecies point to the final catastrophe in the destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem. The Lamentations place us in the 
very scene of the overthrow. “ All feeling of exultation, 
in which, as a mere prophet of evil, he might have in- 
dulged at the fulfilment of his forebodings, was swal- 
lowed up in deep, overwhelming sorrow.’ Smith’s Bib. 
Dict., Plumptre, E. H. The book is annually read by 
the Jews in commemoration of the burning of the Tem- 
ple. Every Friday afternoon passages of it are repeated 
at Jerusalem’s well-known Wailing-Place. 


LAMENTATIONS. 119 


LITERATURE. 


For critical purposes, see Nagelsbach, C. W. E. Very full. ‘* Po- 
etical Books,” Ewald, H. Translation, Noyes, G. R. ‘‘ History of 
the Jews,” vol. 1, Milman, H. H. Kitto, art. by Deutsch, Emanuel. 


7. ECCLESIASTES. 
Chapters, 13. 
§ 1. Title.— This book, the seventh of the Hagio- 
grapha, takes its title from the Sept. translation of the 
second word in the Hebrew text, npap = Koheleth. 


The exact meaning of the word as here used is very 
doubtful, and out of the various suppositions concerning 
its meaning have been formed various hypotheses con- 
cerning the aim of the book. The verb means “to assem- 
ble” or “to gather together” a public assembly, and the 
participle feminine, as here, would seem to mean “a fe- 
male gatherer of an assembly to God” (Ency. Brit.) ; “the 
feminine arising from the fact that in Ch. VII. 27, Solo- 
mon is depicted as personified Wisdom, who appears 
herself in Prov. I. 20 and VIII. 1-4.”” The symbolical 
meaning of the word would then be, ‘One gathering 
the people to hold communion with God,” in harmony 
with Solomon’s purpose as recorded in 1 Kings VIII. 
This theory is suggestive, but seems a little forced. I 
give it as the latest view. Plumptre says the word 
means “debater,” out of which comes the theory of a 
colloquy. Others, and most from the time of Jerome 
(see Bleek), are satisfied with the term “ preacher,”’ 
meaning, according to the full title, “The royal 
preacher,’ Solomon. ‘The words of the preacher, 
the son of David, king in Jerusalem.” See Lange, 
Zockler, O.; “Job and Solomon,” ‘Cheyney ges 


p. 2098. 


ECCLESIASTES. I2I 


§ 2. Author and Date. — The title does not affirm 
explicitly that Solomon was the author of the book, nor 
is there such an affirmation in the book itself. The de- 
cision must be formed by the arguments from tradition 
and internal probabilities. It has been assigned to 
Isaiah, Kimchi, Hezekiah, Talmudical writers, to some 
unknown writer after the Babylonian Captivity, and to 
some unknown writer in the time of Antiochus Epiph- 
anes. 

For Solomon are, — 

(a2) The general tradition of the Jews and the Chris- 
tian Church. Zéockler, O., and Plumptre, E. H. 

(6) That the references to Koheleth in I. 2, 12, and 
XII. 9, 10, harmonize with the superscription interpreted 
as indicating Solomonic authorship. 

(c). That the knowledge of the author in its universal- 
ity, and his experiences as related in the book, better fit 
the Solomonic age than any later period. 

(zq) That the numerous Aramaisms, which are the 
strong point made by those who deny Solomonic author- 
ship, are exaggerated as to number, and can be accounted 
for from the extent of his commercial relations and from 
his acquaintance with the foreign women in his harem 
making him familiar with Aramaic. 

(e) That its introduction into the Canon and the rejec- 
tion of the apocryphal pseudonymous book, ‘“ Wisdom of 
Solomon,” presuppose the meaning of the superscription 
to have been that Solomon was its author. 

Against, — 

(2) That the words, “I, the preacher, was king over 
Israel”’ (Ch. I. 12), are an historical statement, implying 
that he was when writing not king, and is merely im- 


122 THE HAGIOGRAPHA. 


personated by the author as one already dead. But this 
is pressing the Hebrew preterite too far. 

(0) That the name for the Deity is Elohim through- 
out the book, and according to the Newer Criticism im- 
plies a late date. Moreover, that it is totally unlike the 
Proverbs of Solomon, where the name Jehovah predomi- 
nates. A son of David, it is said, would use the theo- 
cratic name. To this it is replied, that the preacher is 
dealing with man universal, ‘all the living who walk un- 
der the sun,” that there is no trace of Judaism in the 
book, and that therefore there was no occasion for intro- 
ducing the theocratic name. 

(c) That Solomon, the second king of the dynasty, 
would hardly speak of ‘all that had been before him in 
Jerusalem,” Ch. I. 16. The reply would be, why not? 
It is a matter of taste; perhaps a specimen of Oriental 
pride. That the word “all” refers to kings, as though 
there were many predecessors, is not a necessity. It 
may refer simply to the wealth and possessions of former 
times. 

(2) That the popular misery and oppression described 
in the book do not belong to his age, or if so, he would 
not confess it. It might be replied that the revolt under 
Rehoboam proved it to have been so, and as to his con- 
fession of his own guilt in the matter, he states facts 
and lets the reader draw his own inference. It is 
singular that by some his authorship is objected to 
because he makes no public confession of his sins, and 
by others, that as a king he would not disgrace himself 
in such a way. 

(ce) That the book presents many parallelisms to. 
Malachi, z.e. as interlocutory, and therefore must be- 


ECCLESIASTES. 123 


long to that age. But what is the proof? Which is 
the imitator ? 

(7) That the Aramaisms are so numerous that they 
cannot be accounted for except on the ground of a later 
age than the time of Solomon. The author, therefore, 
is simply an impersonator of Solomon. Modern criti- 
cism leans strongly this way. JDelitzsch finds nearly a 
hundred words or phrases which are peculiar to post- 
exilian literature, and says that “if the Book of Kohe- 
leth be of old Solomonic origin, then there is no 
history of the Hebrew language.” Ginsburg says that 
“we could as easily believe that Chaucer is the author 
of Rasselas, as that Solomon wrote Koheleth.” Ewald 
takes substantially the same view. Yet Pusey, “Lectures 
on Daniel the Prophet,” pp. 327 sq., maintains that there 
are no words in the book which characterize it as of a 
later age than Solomon’s. So, also, Tayler Lewis, in 
anges iso The Authorship . of Ecclesiastes,” by 
Johnston, David. So Dean Milman. It must be 
confessed, however, that the weight of scholarship at 
the present time favors the late date of the book. 





§$ 3. The Design of the Book.—Oehler puts it 
pithily thus, “In it the contrast between the Divine 
perfection and the vanity of the world is represented as 
irreconcilable, the latter as an undeniable experience, 
the former as a religious postulate.” And Bleek says, 
“Tt is both moving and elevating to see how this latter 
belief is held fast to amid every doubt, and how the 
author everywhere recurs to it.” The author, be he 
Solomon or the impersonator of Solomon, puts before 
us the royal preacher in his old age, soliloquizing on his 


124 THE HAGIOGRAPHA. 


past experiences, and revealing the fact that all that the 
world can bestow is unsatisfactory, that to obey God is 
the sammum bonum. ‘The experiences are to be inter- 
preted, not as Divine revelations, but as human struggles 
in the search for the highest good. 





§ 4. General Analysis.— No two commentators 
agree. This one by Sebastian Schmidt commends itself. 

THREE Parts. I. Treatise concerning the highest 
good: (a) Negative, showing wherein it does not con- 
sist, Chs. I-III. 11; (0) Positive, wherein it is to be 
placed, Ch. III. 12-14. 

II. Six instances in which man may be prevented 
from obtaining the highest good, Chs. III. 15-IV. 16. 

III. Guide to the true worship of God, and the way 
to happiness, contained in fourteen rules of conduct, 
IV. 17-XII. 7; together with a summary, Ch. XII. 
8-14. 

See more in Introduction to Lange, Zockler, O. 


LITERATURE. 
Camb. Bib. for‘Schools” . -5°. 73. %.° . 42 SPiuiptre eee 
Rich in its philosophy. 
Ecclésiastes,'Ency. Brits .2h 5). cy «4/5 seh AalnSDURe eens 
Rich in literature. 
Bicclesiastes Ency.1.) 2 0 tee ee a ee ee 
LAN. lina ts ee de Ate RIS Zee 
“ The Royal Preseneral gp edhe, .°. . +. Hamiltobgiamies 
Metrical Version of Koheleth, Tonge .. ... Lewis; ayler 
Comimentary. ss, os en bee eis Se. 2) ie a 


Minute. 


8 ESTHER. 
Chapters, 10, 

§ 1. Title and Canonicity.— This book, the eighth 
of the Hagiographa, is so named from its heroine. It 
is one of the so-called Megilloth (Rolls), read at the 
Feast of Purim, because it gives the origin of that 
feast. The later Jews attach special value to the book, 
and sometimes place it by the side of the Torah, there- 
by giving it the place of honor. Some of them say 
(Maimonides) that in the time of the Messiah all the 
prophets and the Hagiographa will pass away except 
the Torah, the Oral Law, and the Roll of Esther 
(Bleek). The earlier Jews, according to the Jerusalem 
Talmud, did not so esteem it, and ridiculed the found- 
ing a feast day upon it. See Lange, Schults, Fr. W. 
In the early Christian Church it was likewise opposed, 
on the ground that the name of God is not found in it, 
and that it breathes a spirit of hatred hostile to the 
teachings of the Scriptures generally. The gravest of 
these difficulties and others of a kindred character are 
strongly stated by Bleek, Intro., §$ 173-4. See on the 
other side, Excursuses, E. H. K., in “‘ Book of. Esther,” 
edited by Haley, J. W., and the reply of Keil, Intro. 
Professor Stuart says, “The fact that the Feast of 
Purim has come down to us from time almost immemo- 
rial proves as certainly that the main events related in 
the Book of Esther happened, as the Declaration of 


126 THE HAGIOGRAPHA. 


Independence and the celebration of Fourth of July prove 
that we separated from Great Britain and became an 
independent nation,” Old Testament, p. 357, Stuart, M. 
Its reception into the Canon is accredited by most of 
the canonical tables (Melito’s an exception), and the 
early and late celebration of the Feast of Purim seems 
to attest its integrity and historicity. See Excursus on 
“The Liturgical Use of the Book of Esther,” Lange. 
This feast has been commemorated at least from the 
time of the writer of the second Book of Maccabees, 
Ch. XV. 36. — See Josephus, Antig? 11, 0,7 tere 
Feast of Purim is the strongest external evidence we 
have for the historical character of the book, and gives 
perhaps a sufficient ground for interpreting it from that 
point of view. The poetic interpretation reduces it to 
a strange fictitious story. 


§ 2. Author and Date.— As to these, there is no 
desirable certainty. “The common view is that it is the 
work of Mordecai, thus harmonizing with tradition. It 
seems to have been written by an eye-witness, and 
some of the material seemingly requires such a source. 
The Talmud assigns it to the men of the Great Syna- 
gogue. Others ascribe it to Ezra. No one knows. 

As to date, Bleek places it later than the Persian age, 
but whether written in Palestine or in Persia is uncer- 
tain. Keil thinks the writer contemporary with Ezra 
and Nehemiah. Rawlinson puts the time of its com- 
position 444-434 B.c. In the book of Haley, already 
referred to, the dates of the book are summarily these : 
“Xerxes (the Ahasuerus of Esther) ascends the throne 
485 3B.c.; Esther becomes his queen 478 3B.c.; when 


ESTHER. 127 


she was presumably twenty, and Mordecai forty years 
of age. Hence the events of Esther occurred about 
B.C. 482-470.” 


§ 3. Design of the Book. — This is to describe the 
historical occasion and origin of the Feast of Purim. 
The moral teaching of the book is God’s providential 
care over his dispersed people. The absence of the 
name of God in the book is not easily accounted for. 
Haley’s Excursus “O”’ gives an ingenious but not sat- 
isfactory explanation. My own opinion is that inas- 
much as the whole book is permeated with the wonder- 
ful intervention of God’s care for His people, the name 
was designed to be felt rather than mentioned, and 
so omitted purposely. But this view does not satisfy 
the craving of the general reader. 


§ 4. General Analysis.— The book may be divided 
into two parts :— 

Part 1. The elevation of Esther to be queen, and 
the discovery of the plot against the king’s life. Chs. 
T.—IT. 

Part 2. The promotion of Haman, and the frustra- 
tion of his plans against the Jews. Chs. III.-X. 

Note.—- In the Hebrew text the book ends with Ch. 
feasts Lhe Sept. adds ten. verses, the Vulgate’ six 
chapters. These are deemed apocryphal, though ac- 
cepted by the Greek and Roman churches. See Ex- 
cursus “ P,’”’ Haley, for translation. See art. “ Esther,” 
Smith’s Bib. Dic., and Lange, Intro., p. 25. 


§ 5. Chief Difficulties in the Book.— 1. Settling the 
question as to the king during whose reign the events 


128 THE HAGIOGRAPHA. 


occurred. The prevalent opinion now is that it was 
the renowned Xerxes. See Haley’s Intro. 

2. The Persian words and names in the book as 
affecting authorship and date. See Haley, Excursus 
“A,” and Introductions. 

3. The adjustment of the history of the Jews with 
the events described in the book. See Haley, Excur- 

s. F,” “ Hist. of the Jews,” Milman, HH) thiice 
of Israel;’”’ Ewald, H. 

4. The Unwritten Name, Haley, Excursus “ P.” 


LITERATURE. 
‘The Book of Esther ?),° U2 s yar sss ae) ee 
PTISiMON te ews, nc WOU d fee mene Milman, H. H. 
“Lectures Expository and Practical on the Book 
of -Esther en Co 5 a> o.. eit eet ee eats yas ie Ra 


Bible Commentary. . . » « © « s e « « JRawlinson, G: 


9. DANIEL. 
Chapters, 12. 

§ 1. Title.— This book, the ninth of the Hagio- 
erapha, is so named from the prophet whose life and 
prophecies it records. The name signifies “God is my 
judge,” or “God is judging.” 


§ 2. Canonicity of the Book.— The recognition of 
the book by the Sept. translators, the Jewish synagogue, 
and the Christian Church as sacred Scripture is unques- 
tioned, but its right to a place there with such authority 
as is given to the prophets, such as Ezekiel and Isaiah, 
is denied. 

(a) Because in the Hebrew Text it is placed among 
the Hagiographa, a class of non-prophetical books. In 
the Sept. and the catalogues of the early Church it takes 
it place among the Major Prophets. Some of the rea- 
sons for its place in the Hagiographa are : — 

(a) That Daniel was a prophet of a lower grade than 
Haggai and Zechariah. He saw visions; they did not. 
But Daniel, according to the book, was no more a vision- 
ary prophet than Ezekiel or Zechariah. 

(8) That Daniel was not so much a prophet as an 
apocalyptic seer, Bib. Com. A distinction without a 
difference to a believer in revelation. 

(y) That Daniel was not officially a prophet, as the 
others were. There is no evidence of such a distinction 


130 THE HAGIOGRAPHA. 


in the arrangement of the books of the Canon. The 
other books of the Hagiographa are not the works of 
prophets per se; but if there is such a fact as prophecy 
minute and full, the Book of Daniel contains it. See 
Pusey’s “Daniel the Prophet,” pp. 351 sqq. 

(6) 1. “The Book of Daniel stands between Esther 
and Ezra, because Esther, for a sufficient reason, is the 
last of the Megilloth (festival volumes), and because the 
principal contents of Daniel belong to the time before 
Ezra and Nehemiah.” — Herzog, Delitzsch. Chron- 
ological. 

u. The manifest division of the book into history 
and prophecy, composed or written in Aramaic and 
Hebrew, fits it to precede Ezra, the only other book 
in which the Aramaic and Hebrew are found (except 
Jeremiah). Linguistic. 

(ec) The subject-matter of the book allies itself with the 
general tone and spirit of the Hagiographa. ‘‘ Prayer 
and prophecy link it to the softer, more spiritual mem- 
bers of the Kethubim; history and narrative to the 
sterner, more prosaic records of the Jewish Annals.” 
Bib. Com., Intro. 

Note. — The catalogues of the early Church follow 
the Sept., and place Daniel among the Major Prophets. 
It is doubted by many whether the earliest Hebrew 
Canon placed Daniel among the Hagiographa. See 
“Daniel, Critical History and Defence of, etc.” pp. 
424 sqq. Stuart, M. 

(b) Because the Son of Sirach in Eccles., Ch. XLIX., 
omits to mention his name among the distinguished 
worthies and prophets prior to his day. It is an argu- 
ment ¢ szlentio, which is always treacherous. There is 


DANIEL. 131 


no mention of Ezra or Mordecai, yet no one questions 
the literary work of Ezra. The names to which the 
Son of Sirach refers follow no chronological order, and 
the most that can be said of the omissions, is, that he 
did not know of any Daniel, or that Daniel did not 
stand in his canon among the prophets, as he does not 
in the Hebrew Text. But the latter fact harmonizes 
with the canonicity of the book. 

(c) Because if the Book of Daniel were in existence 
in the time of Cyrus, its influence would have been 
apparent in the post-exilic writers, Haggai, Zechariah 
(I.-VIII.), and Malachi. But critics have affirmed that 
such influence is to be seen, and that Zechariah espe- 
cially drew unmistakably from Daniel. Moreover, the 
analogy between the prayer of Daniel (Ch. IX. 3-10), 
and the prayer of Ezra (Ch. IX.), and Nehemiah (Ch. 
X.), indicates strongly the dependence of these writers 
upon Daniel, and so favors the early date claimed for 
his book. 

Note. — The internal reasons assigned for a Macca- 
bean date of the book and a pseudographic authorship 
are drawn from philological and historical difficulties, 
together with the assumption of the impossibility of 
such minute prophecies and stupendous miracles as 
are therein recorded. For replies, see Commentaries. 





§ 3. Unity of the Book.— Whoever was the author, 
critics are now substantially agreed that the book is the 
product of one mind, though the matter may have been 
arranged by a compiler. Bleek says, “This may be 
assumed as certain” (§ 258). Cheyne says: “ Nor, in 
spite of all the assertions of controversial writers on 


132 THE HAGIOGRAPHA. 


both sides, can any argument be based on the fact 
(strange as it seems) that the Book of Daniel is written 
in two languages or dialects.” ‘ Daniel,’ Encyc. Brit. 
“The similarity of style binds together the Chaldean 
and Hebrew portions not only in themselves but with 
each other) (DetWette Pusey cheb. 

The chief objections to the unity of the book are — 

The use of the Aramaic and Hebrew languages or 
dialects, and the use of the third person for Daniel in 
the first seven chapters, while the first person is em- 
ployed in the remaining five. 

1. As to languages, the facts are these: the introduc- 
tion, Chs. I., II. 4a are in Hebrew; Chs. II. 4b—VII. 
are in Aramaic; the remaining chapters are in Hebrew. 
For this peculiarity several reasons are assigned. 

(z) That the original Hebrew of the Aramaic portion 
was lost, and its place supplied by the Aramaic trans- 
lator. . Lenormant, \F.,Encye.- Bnit., Cheyney aes 
Possible. 

(2) That Daniel wrote the book at different periods of 
his life; that the whole was written originally in Ara- 
maic, and when Daniel had recovered his mother tongue, 
which he had lost in Babylon, he translated portions of 
the book into Hebrew. Possible, but not probable. 
Zockler, O. 

(c) That the Aramaic portions are taken from the 
Babylonian records. Possible. Lange, Strong, J. 

(7) The first part is in Aramaic as the language of 
the world-power and its development; the second in 
Hebrew as treating of the kingdom of God and its 
development, in the language of the people of God. 
Keil. Suggestive. 


DANIEL. 133 


(ce) Whatever the reason, and whatever the criticism 
upon the special characteristics of the Hebrew and the 
Aramaic in Daniel, the combination of the two favors 
the early authorship of the book in opposition to the 
Maccabean theory. Daniel was better qualified to write 
in both languages than a Maccabee. At any rate, a 
Maccabee would be inclined to write in Aramean alone, 
if his object was the instruction of the people. See 
Fusey,:E. B: 

2. The variation in the use of the first and third 
person, the latter when spoken of historically, the 
former when he appears personally, is not without its 
analogy in Is. VII. 3, and XX. 2 and XXXVI.- 
XX XIX., and in the seventh chapter there seems to be 
a preparation for the change. In the first two verses 
Daniel is spoken of in the third person, and the rest of 
the chapter takes the personal form. “Daniel, Book 
Dea omutns. bib. Dict, Westcott, B. F.. says: The 
cause of the difference is commonly supposed to lie in 
the nature of the case. The prophet narrates symbolic 
and representative events historically, for the event is 
its own witness; but revelations and visions need the 
personal attestation of those to whom they were com- 
municated”’ (¢dem, § 5). He thinks, however, and with 
him ‘ Bible Com.” agrees, that the Book of Daniel as it 
now stands, though its material is essentially Daniel's, 
was brought into its present shape by a reviser, with a 
prefixed introduction. The theory is a relief, but it is 
a theory. 


§ 4. Author of the Book.— Was he the Daniel of 
the Captivity, or a pseudo-Daniel of the Maccabean 


134 THE HAGIOGRAPHA. 


period? The testimony in favor of the former view is 
as follows :— 

(2) The testimony of the book itself. 

(0) The testimony of Ezekiel goes so far at least as 
to declare the reality of a well-known righteous and 
wise man by the name of Daniel at the time of his 
prophesying. Ch. XIV. 14, 18, 20 and Ch. XXVIII. 3. 

(c) The testimony of the first Book of Maccabees. 
1 Mac. I. 54; cf. Dan: X. 27 and XI.°20 sqm; aiehia 
ITs50, 0o;cct ean eLifeands ee 

(2) The testimony of the Book of Baruch, described, 
though apocryphal, as ‘‘a cento of Jeremiah, Daniel, 
Isaiah, Nehemiah, and Deuteronomy.”’ Ewald dates the 
book 400 Bc.) “See Baruch; Th, NL ict) Danvers 

(¢) The testimony of Josephus, who says, ‘‘ Let those 
who read Daniel’s prophecies marvel at one so highly 
honored.” He is “one of the greatest of the prophets,” 
etc. See “Wars of the Jews,” 6, 2, 1; also Antiqgms 
8, 5. He evidently states the current opinion. 

(f) The testimony of the New Testament inciden- 
tally acknowledges each special characteristic of the 
book: miracles (Heb. XI. 33), its predictions (Matt. 
XXIV. 15), and its doctrine of angels (Luke I. 19-26). 
The Revelation everywhere teems with the imagery of 
Daniel. See also Matt. XXVI. 64. Sharp criticism 
may weaken some of this testimony, but considered as 
a whole it is very strong. 


§ 5. Analysis of the Book. — Auberlen divides it 
into three parts, according to contents, as follows :— 

1. General Introduction. Ch. L. 

2. A general view of the progressive history of the 


DANIEL. 135 


powers of the world, and of the principles of the Divine 
government as seen in events in the life of Daniel. Chs. 
II.-VII. 

3. The fortunes of the people of God minutely mepaled 
as typical of the fortunes of the Church in all ages. Chs. 
VIIL-XII. 


LITERATURE. 


‘¢The Day-year Theory of Prophecy”. . . Stuart, M. 
Also, — 
Peer tissertauioi Tl) sv « )s . >. ..-. Cowles, H. 
RCO neds) ee es 2 tees |). oS). Stuart; Me 
Ree Ore tern Greenies aon 2 ae...) /S,5°) Tregelles, S. P. 
Waniel . .< . bed ee eh ete s (h26 ite 
Lectures on the Brophes Daniel. sl af SEY LG bse 
eee. eet aa ag fe ss,  Lockler, O, 
ees nee een. es.) . , - Biblé'Com. 
PeCmNGn rs et cele) vies <: 1 \'s: OChalt-Herzog; 
eae ree, ON eMete SS) o's) “ation leéky:J. 


CEG CS es ae Encyc. Brit. 
“The Prophet Daniel andl ae Rereiadon Ai 
rie 2 aa eisiest ye! ya ae HUDSTIEL: 


“ Authenticity of Daniel Ree ate re Sa tieN wer LeOBTCNDEr DO: Kut VVs 
OU en. ANE n (hd et ol.) 6S Williams; Rowland: 
sereemiares ON Laniel” fy. 16% <.'.0) jc oo. Chase, Ira. 
Re OIE a ele Bie i ei. Sy ee Wy Barmess AY 
era kd Nae So ta. fv. wh le Wald HH. 
Translation . . : : me LWOVeS.. Ure ie 
Post-millenarian chet re wilenarian Miter 

ture, generally. 


10. EZRA. 
Chapters, 10. 

The Newer Criticism and much conservative criticism 
reckon this book as a part of a whole, including with it 
Nehemiah and the Chronicles, and discuss authorship 
and date from that point of view, but for our purposes 
we shall consider them as separate books. 


§ 1. Title.— This tenth book of the Hagiographa is 
so named from the prominent position occupied by Ezra 
in the book, and also, perhaps, as an index of authorship. 
The word signifies “help.” Ezra and Nehemiah are 
called Esdras and Nehemiah by the Sept., and first 
and second Esdras by the Vulgate. Ezra and Nehe- 
miah (Bleek) are reckoned as one book of two parts by 
the Jews, Josephus, the Talmud, Origen, and Jerome. 
Early Jewish and Christian testimony thus agree. The 
Book of Nehemiah, however, has its own title, and 
according to the text is thus distinguished from the 
Book of Ezra. 


§ 2. Author. — Tradition assigns the book to Ezra 
the Scribe. Modern criticism admits this with refer- 
ence to a portion of the book, but it deems the whole 
a compilation by some unknown but contemporane- 
ous author. The book is divided into two distinct 
parts. Chs. I-VI. treat of the Return of the Exiles 


EZRA. 137 


from the Babylonian Captivity, and events which took 
place during a period of twenty-three years, 538-516 
B.c. This period is that when Joshua was high priest, 
Zerubbabel governor, and Zechariah and Haggai proph- 
ets. But from the seventh chapter to the close of the 
book the history relates events which took place in the 
short period of twelve months, z.e. from 458 B.c. (April) to 
457 3B.c. (April). There is, therefore, a gap of fifty-seven 
years between the first and second divisions; so that 
the writer of the last portion could hardly have been an 
eye-witness of the scenes of the first portion. Yet Ezra 
like any other historian could have compiled the his- 
torical material at hand, and put his seal of authorship 
upon it. See Bible Com., Introd., Rawlinson, G. ; 
meenires, Pusey.) 1208s, pp. #335: Sq: 

As to the second portion, the chief ground against 
Ezraic authorship is the varying use of the first and 
third person. The answer to this is the same as in 
the parallel case in Daniel and Isaiah. On the whole, 
Ezraic authorship is fairly sustained. The Aramaic 
portions, Chs. IV. 8-VI. 16, and VII. 12-26, are prob- 
ably taken from public records. 


§ 8. Date. — Rawlinson puts it at 457 B.c., relying 
upon the omission of any mention of the arrival of 
Nehemiah in Jerusalem, which occurred in 445 B.c., and 
supposing it written soon after Ezra had disposed of the 
difficulty concerning mixed marriages. His commission 
to go to Jerusalem at first appears to have been tempo- 
rary, Ch. VII. 14. He probably returned to the Persian 
court, where he may have written the book bearing his 
name. 


138 THE HAGIOGRAPHA. 


§ 4. Object and Contents of the Book. — Rawlinson 
remarks on these points as follows (Bible Com., Introd. 
to Ezra): “The object of the writer of Ezra is to give 
an account of the return from the Captivity, and of the ~ 
subsequent fortunes of the Palestinian Jews, until the 
eighth year of Artaxerxes, 457 B.c. His work is a plain 
and simple history, and is devoid of all stirring inci- 
dents, the Jews under the early Persian monarchs being 
members of a great settled empire, and living peaceably 
in the enjoyment of equal rights with other Persian 
subjects. The matters to which he directs attention 
are three and three only. 

“J. The number, family, and (to some extent) the 
names of those who returned from Babylon with Ezra 
and Zerubbabel. Chs. II. and VIII. 1-20. 

“TJ. The rebuilding of the Temple and the circum- 
stances connected therewith. Chs. I, III., V., and VII. 

“III. The misconduct of the returned Jews in respect 
of mixed marriages, and the steps taken by Ezra in 
consequence, ~Chsri Xe 

The book covers a period of about eighty years, 536- 
8 to 458 B.c._ Bleek gives the period as 100 years. 

The text of the book in the original is very imperfect in 
names and numbers; some of them as yet irreconcilable. 


§ 5. Topics of Interest.—1. The history of sur- 
rounding nations during this period. See Milman, H. 
H., and Stanley, A. P., and Ewald, H. 

2. The relation of Ezra to the Canon. 

3. The Persian kings of the period. See Introds. and 
Dicts. 

LITERATURE. 
Meagre. Coms., Bible, and Lange. 


11. NEHEMIAH. 
Chapters, 13, 

§ 1. Title.— This book, the eleventh of the Hagio- 
gerapha, takes its title from the first verse of the first 
chapter, “The words of Nehemiah the son of Hacaliah.” 
As already stated, in the earliest known Hebrew canon, 
it and Ezra were coupled together under the name 
“The Book of Ezra,” and not perhaps until the time of 
Jerome, were they separated as we now have them. 


§ 2. Author. — Of the first seven chapters there is 
general agreement. The narrative is consecutive, Nehe- 
miah speaks in the first person throughout, the style is 
uniform, and his authorship is admitted. 

Rawlinson says that “The events related cover a 
space of (probably) less than a year,” and that the 
record was composed ‘‘at least twelve years later, since, 
while the general narrative falls into the twentieth year 
of Artaxerxes (or B.C. 445-444), In one place (Ch. V. 
14) the thirty-second year of Artaxerxes (or B.c. 433- 
432) is mentioned.” 

Of the remaining chapters, few, except Keil, are will- 
ing to accept Nehemiah as the author, though they admit 
parts of them to be his. 

(2) Chs. VII.-X., giving events belonging to 444 B.c., 
speak of Nehemiah in the third person, and call him 
“the Tirshathah,” while in the previous chapters he is 


I40 THE HAGIOGRAPHA. 


always called ‘‘Pechah.” Ezra occupies the foreground 
of the story, the style is different, and the work seems 
to be that of another. Some assign it to Ezra. Rawlin- 
son conjectures that it is the work of Nehemiah’s scribe. 

(6) Chs, XI.-XII. 26 give six lists of citizens of 
Jerusalem, etc., but Ch. XII. 12-21 contains the name 
of Jaddua as high priest, who belonged to the time of 
Alexander, a century later than Nehemiah. 

(c) But Chs. XII. 27—XIII. are generally credited to 
Nehemiah. 

(2) With the exception of Ch. XII. 1-26, which must 
be by a later hand, or contain interpolations, which 
Rawlinson admits, the book is evidently a compilation, 
containing a large amount of matter which was Nehe- 
miah’s, to which the compiler probably prefixed the 
superscription. 

If we admit the opinion that the first verses of Ezra 
are a repetition of the last verses of the Chronicles, and 
are an index of the chronological order of the history, 
then Nehemiah gives us the last Scriptural history of 
the condition of the Jews prior to the era of the N. T. 

Rawlinson puts the date of the book either 430 B.c. 
or 330 B.c., the variation depending upon the decision 
whether the writer of Ch. XII. 1-26 was the compiler 
and author, or was the compiler of later date, who 
merely inserted that portion. 

The text in general is good. Chief difficulty, names 
and numbers. 


§ 3. General Analysis. — Professor Crosby divides 
the book into three parts, viz. :— 
‘I. Before the wall-building. Chs. I.-II. 


NEHEMIAH. I4I 


II. The wall-building. Chs. III.—XII. 43. 
III. After the wall-building. Ch. XII. 44-XIII. 
See Lange, 


LITERATURE, 


Arts. ‘‘ Nehemiah ” and “ Nehemiah, Book of,’ Smith’s Bib. Dict. 
Bible Com. 
eiauesor iizra.and Nehemiah”) . ... ..>.+ Bosanquet, J..W. 
Crt ne ree ee We ee... Kell. 
‘An Introduction to the Books of Ezra, Nehe- 

Pete eDUsMStner Mas he gs fe es) ok ayCey Awd. 


12 1 AND 2 CHRONICLES. 
Chapters: 1 Chron, 29; 2 Chron,, 36, 


§ 1. Title. — What are called 1st and 2d Chronicles 
were originally but one work in the Hebrew Mss., with 
the superscription, ‘“‘The Affairs of the Times,” “The 
Daily Acts.” The Septuagint translators, dissatisfied 
with such a title, gave them one which they considered 
appropriate to the contents of the books and their posi- 
tion relative to the other historical books, and called 
them paraleipomena, “the things omitted,” as if they 
were designed to supply the omissions in the history of 
the Jews as found in Samuel and Kings. The term 
“Chronicles” has for its Latin father, Jerome, and for 
its German father, Luther. It is strictly a translation 
from the Vulgate. 


§ 2. Author. — Tradition, Jewish and Christian, as- 
signs the authorship to Ezra; some modern critics deem 
it the work of a priest or Levite later than Ezra’s time; 
and others believe that Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah 
were originally one book by one and the same author. 
It is a singular fact that Ezra (Ch. I. 1-3) begins with 
the same passage as that with which Chronicles ends, 
Ch. XXIX. 22, 23; as if the two books were originally 
one, and subsequently divided into two. If this were so, 
it would favor Ezraic authorship, provided Ezra were 
the author of the book bearing his name. 


I AND 2 CHRONICLES. 143 


§ 3. Date. — Not earlier than 538 B.c. Almost the 
whole of Ch. IX. of 1 Chron. belongs to the period after 
the Captivity. Ch. III. of 1 Chron. gives a list of de- 
scendants of Zerubbabel. The style is also akin with that 
of Ezra and Nehemiah, with Aramaisms and one Per- 
sian word (Daric), 1 Chron. XXIX. 7. Some place the 
book as late as 400 B.C., or 336-323, the Grecian period ; 
and others, still later, in the Maccabean period. Rawlin- 
son says (Bible Com., Introd.) : “If Ezra was the author, 
the date could not well be later than B.c. 435, for Ezra 
died about that time. There is nothing in the contents 
and style of the work to make the date B.c. 450-435 im- 
probable, for the geneaology in Ch. III. 23, 24, which 
appears to be later than this, may be a subsequent addi- 
tion.” 

Note. — The date of the Chronicles is of great impor- 
tance in settling questions raised by the Newer Criti- 
cism. See Keil and Bleek, also Lange and Com. 


§ 4. Sources. 

(a) A general history called the ‘‘ Book of the Kings 
of Israel and Judah.” 2 Chron. XVI. 11 sq. 

(2) Annals of contemporaneous prophets, some twelve 
of them. See Bible Com. 

(c) The whole of the earlier Scriptures. 

(2) Various documents, genealogies, etc., preserved 
and taken from public and private sources, not men- 
tioned in the Scriptures; e.g. 1 Chron. II. 18-24, 42-55, 
etc. 


§ 5. Special Characteristics of the Book.— As 
compared with the histories of Samuel and Kings, it is 


144 THE HAGIOGRAPHA. 


not a mere supplement to them, like John’s Gospel as 
compared with the Synoptists, for the writer repeats 
sometimes whole chapters from Samuel or Kings, with a 
few verbal differences, and this is not the characteristic of 
a supplement.! He evidently has a distinct purpose in 
mind, and that purpose seems to be to gather up the 
whole history of the Jewish nation as a guide and inspi- 
ration to the people after their return from captivity. 
Hence there appear as special features of the book, — 

(2) A strong tendency to portray the externals of 
religion, temple worship, and the priesthood; so strong 
that by some the book has been called Ecclesiastical ; 
Samuel and Kings being cailed political. 

(2) A decided genealogical purpose. 

(c) Its high religious tone, referring every great ca- 
lamity and deliverance to the good or evil deed of king 
and people, to be punished or rewarded by an ever- 
watchful Providence. See Bible Com., Intro. 


§ 6. Trustworthiness of the Book.— On account 
of the attacks of the Newer Criticism this feature 
demands careful consideration. If the book is trust- 
worthy history, many of the strongest attacks of that 
school can be effectually repelled. See “Hist. of 
Israel,” Ch. 6, Welhausen, J.; “Chronicles; eimeyes 
Brit., Smith, W. R.; “Israel,” Encyc. Brit., Welhau- 
sen, J.; “Bible for Learners,” vol. 2..>ppipaaeaae 


1 We find such characteristic passages as these: 1 Chron. X. 1-12; cf. 
1Sam, XXXI. 1 Chron. XVII.; cf. 2 Sam. VIL..-1 Chron) XV itipeee ee 
Sam. VIII.’ 1 Chron. XIX.; cf. 2Sam. X.. 1 Chron! XXDe op eee 
XXIV. 2 Chron. V. 2-VII. 10; cf. 1 Kings VIII. 2 Chron. XXII. 10- 
XXIV. 1; cf. 2 Kings XI. 


I AND 2 CHRONICLES, 145 


“Religion of Israel,’’ Kuenen, A., vol. 2; ‘ Prophets 
ard Prophecy of Israel,’ Kuenen, A.; Keil’s Intro., 
vol. 2, giving the arguments of De Wette, with full 
answers. Welhausen reproduces De Wette, and ac- 
knowledges his indebtedness. “Chronicles,” Schaff- 
frerzoe. se ange, intro. by Zockler, O. ;*\“ The ‘Books 
of Chronicles, with special reference to the Books of 
Samuel,’ Andover Review, April, 84, Brown, F. 


§ 7. General Analysis. — The book may be divided 
into six sections : — 

1. The genealogical register of primeval times and of 
the tribes of Israel. 1 Chron. [.-IX. 

2. The reign of David. 1 Chron. X.-X XIX. 

3. The reign of Solomon. 2 Chron. I-IX. 

4. The narrative of the revolt of the Ten Tribes. 
2 Chron. X. 

5. The Kingdom of Judah to the Exile. 2 Chron. 
XI-XXXVI. 21. 

6. The edict of Cyrus for the return of the Jews to 
Palestine. - 2 Chron. XXXVI. 22, 23. 


§ 8. Text.— Imperfect. Difficulties in names, num- 
bers, and arrangement of words. Many of them may 
be copyist’s errors. 


LITERATURE. 


Bible Commentary (best). 
Piruanetion to the O. 1.7.2 4 se we te. +) Davidson, S. 
“ Holy Bible, with notes,” Intro., vol. 3. . . . Wordsworth, C. 


BRIEF LIST OF DESIRABLE COMMENTARIES.’ 


On the whole Old Testament. — Lange; Bible Com. 
On Pentateuch.— Keil; Pulpit. 


IO. 


Il. 
12. 


ey 
14. 
I5. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 


2I. 


22. 
23. 


OW OWI ANAWDH * 


. Genesis. — Lange; Keil and Delitzsch; Dod; Pulpit. 
. Exodus. — Bible Com.; Lange; Pulpit; Murphy. 

. Leviticus. —K. and D.; Lange; Murphy; Pulpit. 

. Mumbers and 
. Deuteronomy 


Lange; Bible Com.; K. and D.; Pulpit. 


Foshua.— Keil; Lange; Pulpit; Bible Com.; Cambridge Bible. 
1 and 2 Samuel.— Keil; Lange; Pulpit; Cambridge Bible. 


. I and 2 Kings.— Lange; Pulpit; Cambridge Bible. 
. Isatah.— Alexander; Delitzsch; Cheyne. 


Se ee eat Lange; Keil; Cambridge Bible; Pulpit. 

Ezekiel. — Bible Com.; Lange; Fairbairn; Keil. 

MINOR PROPHETS. Whole. Lange; K. and D.; Puipit. Hosea, . 
Obadiah, Fonah, Micah, Haggai, and Zechariah: Cambridge 
Bible. 

Psalms, — Perowne; Delitzsch; Alexander; Jennings and Lowe. 

Proverbs. — Delitzsch; Lange. 

Fob. — Lange; Delitzsch; Davidson. 

Song of Solomon.— Lange; Delitzsch. 

Ruth. — Lange. 

Ecclesiastes.— Lange; Stuart; Wright. 

Esther.— Keil; Bible Com.; Haley. 

Daniel. — Stuart; Cowles; Lange; Keil. 

ee eanie Com.; Keil; Pulpit. 

I and 2 Chronicles. — Bible Com. ; Keil; Lange; Pulpit. 

Apocrypha. — Lange; Bible Com. 


1 Chiefly for English students. 


147 


MINOR PROPHETS, 


MINOR. PROPHETS. — Taste I. 





BIRTH-PLACE AND 


ne hwirolie PROBABLE DATE. REIGNS. 


HEBREW. 





PRE-ASSYRIAN. 

1. Hosea. Israel ? to Israel.| K. 790-725.| B. 790-725. H. 772+ Uzziah, 10; Jotham, 
11 s;Ahaz, 12; hez, 
13, of Judah; and 
Jéeron 2d,7 13, Of 
Israel. 

2. Joel. Judah to Judah. | K. 877-847.| B. 800. H. 870. Joash, 8; or Uzziah, 
10. 

3. Amos. Judah to Israel. | K. 810-783.| B. 810-783. H. 795. Uzziah of Judah and 
Jeroboam 2d of Is- 
rael. 

880. Joram, 5, and Aha- 
mah, 63 /Ofst 

825. Jeroboam 2d. ? 


rm 


4. Obadiah. | Judah ? to Edom.| K. 889-884. | Klein. 890-880. M. 58s. 


i 


5. Jonah. Israel to Nineveh.| K. 824-783. | B. 824-783. 
ASSYRIAN. 
B. 758-700. 
ney SgaOe } Kido. 727-608. 
. 710-699.| B.asK. Klein. 680-667. 
CHALDEAN. 


Jotham, Ahaz, and 
- 727-721. |” Hezekiah. 
. 665-607. | Hezekiah. ? 


6. Micah. Judah ? to Judah. 
7. Nahum. ? to Nineveh. 


K H 

K H 
8. Habakkuk. | Judah to Judah. | K. 650-627.| B. and Klein. 610-597. H. 620 Joash or Jehoiakim. 
g. Zephaniah. | Judah to Judah. | K. 640-625.| B. 642-611. Klein. 620-614.| H. 630. Josiah. 

POST EXILE. 
10. Haggai. Judah ? to Judah. | K. 591-520 H. 520. 2d year of Darius 
Hystaspes. 

11. Zechariah. | Babylon ?to “ | K. 520. Hiaaae Darius Hystaspes. 
12. Malachi. Judah to Judah. | K. 433-423.| B.440. Reinke, 440. H. 440. Nehemiah. 








Key: K., Keil; B., Bleek; Klein., Kleinert; R., Reinke; M., Meyrick; H., Harman. 








MINOR PROPHETS. 


MINOR PROPHETS. — Tasie Il. 


HEBREW. 


. Hosea. 


. Joel. 


. Amos. 


. Obadiah. 
. Jonah. 


- Micah. 


. Nahum. 


. Habakkuk. 
. Zephaniah. 
10. 
Ii 


Haggai. 
Zechariah. 


. Malachi. 


CHARACTERISTIC. 


Emotional 


Vividness. 


Logical. 


Crisp. 
Lucidity. 
Terse. Anti- 
thetic. 
Imagery. 


Dramatic. 
Rough style. 
Unrhythmical. 
Dramatic. 


Axiomatic. 





AIM. CRITICAL DIFFICULTY. 


Defence of Divine} Chronological arrange- 


love and right-| ment. 
eousness. 

Eschatological. | Date. Interpretation, 
historical or allegor- 
ical. 

Divine justice | Unity. 

against idolatry. 

Against Edom. | Date. 


A gospel to Nin-| Method of interpreta- 
eveh. tion. 

The new king- | Arrangement. 
dom. 


Consolation for | Date. 

Israel by over- 

throw of As- 

syria. 
God’s sovereignty| Arrangement. 
Dies ire. Arrangement. 
Restoration. Arrangement. 
Messianic. Authorship. Chrono- 

logical arrangement. 

Reformation. Date. 














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